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ƒ0×!ÝÓ  ÓÑ8€}0XXdÈXXdì8ÑÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRY,3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter 3Ø' Letterÿ3Ø'TÑÔUSUS.,ÔÓÈÓÝ  ÝjDÿÿ4Tech InitInitialize Technical StyleÓ(€ " (ÓØØ ÿÿCuy±ÉåTechnicalTechnical Document Style11.11.1.11.1.1.11.1.1.1.11.1.1.1.1.11.1.1.1.1.1.11.1.1.1.1.1.1.1" 1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1fEÿÿ2Doc InitInitialize Document StyleÓ€%ÓÈÓ(€ )   (ÓØØ&'((ÿÿ$˜˜Ìà0 àà à(ÿÿ$™™à0 àà0 àà à((ÿÿ$ššà0 àà0 àà0 àà à  ÿÿA_ekqw‡DocumentDocument StyleI.1.A.a.(1)(a)i)a))a)R& ÿÿ8BibliogrphyBibliographyà0..àà°..°àÌÌ ÿÿCƒ‰•›£«±Right ParRight-Aligned Paragraph NumbersI.A.1.a.(1)(a)i)a),a)#|x  d(Ö×$¡¡Ó  ÓÑ8€}0XXdÈXXdì8ÑÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRY,3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter 3Ø' Letterÿ3Ø'TÑÔUSUS.,ÔÓÈÓ˜HP DeskJet 600 (Monochrome)Ȱ,,,,Ȱ0!…Dy+ ˜*m Files̃«ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÝ ƒ0×!ÝÓ  ÓÑ8€oÆXXdÈdÈ8ÑÑÑÑ  ÑÑTRY,3Ø'Xà3Ø' Letter 3Ø' Letterÿ3Ø'TÑÔUSUS.,ÔÓÈÓÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ  Ñ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Ð ° Ѐ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Ð xÈ Ѐ€€CENTRAL€ASIA'S€CONTINUING€ROLE€IN€THE€WORLD€ECONOMY€TO€1800Ð @ ÐÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€byÐ Ð  ÐÌà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#à€€€€€€€ANDRE€GUNDER€FRANKÐ` °¸ (#¸ (# Ѐ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€University€of€TorontoÐ ( x ÐÌ€€€€€€€€€€96€Asquith€Ave.€Toronto,€Ont.€Canada€M4W€1J8Ð ¸   Ѐ€€€€€€€€€€€€Tel:416„972€0616€€Fax:416„972€0071€Ð € Ð  Ѐ€€€€€€€€€€€€e„mail:€agfrank@chass.utoronto.caÐ H ˜  ÐÌINTRODUCTIONÐ Ø(  ÐÌAsia's€rightful€and€historically€documented€place€has€been€deniedÐ h¸  Ðby€the€dominance€of€excessively€Eurocentric€perspectives€on€Ô_ÔearlyÐ 0€  Ðmodern€and€recent€worldÔ_Ô€economic€history€€„€and€social€science!Ð øH  ÐAs€the€master€[European/Ô_ÔistÔ_Ô]€historian€Ô_ÔFernandÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔBraudelÔ_Ô€(1979:134)Ð À Ðastutely€observed€"Europe€invented€historians€and€then€made€goodÐ ˆØ Ðuse€of€them."€It€is€time€to€help€right€these€Euro„[or€Western„]Ð P  Ðcentric€mis„interpretations€by€historians,€social€scientists€andÐ h Ðthe€general€public€by€offering€an€interpretation€of€modern€andÐ à0 Ðeconomic€world€history,€which€again€allots€Asia€its€due.Ð ¨ø ÐContributing€thereto€is€the€goal€of€the€author's€òòÔ_ÔReOrientÔ_Ô:€GlobalÐ pÀ ÐEconomy€in€the€Asian€Ageóó€(Frank€1997).€Ð 8ˆ ÐÌThe€present€essay€offers€some€indications€of€where€and€howÐ È ÐCentral€Asia€fit€„€that€is,€continued€to€fit€„€into€the€mostlyÐ à ÐAsian€scheme€of€things.€I€say€"continued"€to€fit,€for€two€mainÐ X¨ Ðreasons:€The€first€reason€is€that€I€have€already€argued€for€òòTheÐ  p ÐCentrality€of€Central€Asiaóó€(Frank€1992)€in€Afro„Ô_ÔeurasianÔ_Ô€historyÐ è8 Ðfor€several€thousand€years,€at€least€for€over€a€millennium€and€aÐ °  Ðhalf€before,€and€still€after,€the€beginning€of€the€Christian€era.Ð xÈ! ÐThe€second€Ô_Ôreason€is€that€this€centrality,€and€evenÔ_Ô€theÐ @" Ðrelevance,€of€Inner€and€Central€Asia€has€not€only€been€overlyÐ  X# Ðneglected€but€is€even€denied€outright.€Consider€for€instance€theÐ Ð $ Ðfollowing€Ô_Ôglaring€exampleÔ_Ô€in€whichòò€óó€the€history€of€largelyÐ ˜!è% ÐIslamic€Central€Asia€during€this€period€is€largely€dismissed€byÐ `"°& Ðthe€òòCambridge€History€of€Islamóó:€Ð (#x' ÐÌà0  àCentral€Asia€was€thus€isolated€from€the€early€sixteenthÐ ¸$ ) Ðcentury€Ô_Ô...Ô_Ô€and€therefore€led€an€existence€at€the€margin€ofÐ €%Ð * Ðworld€history....€The€discovery€of€the€sea„route€to€EastÐ H&˜!+ ÐAsia€rendered€the€Silk€Road€increasingly€superfluous....Ð '`", ÐFrom€the€threshold€of€modern€times€Central€Asian€historyÐ Ø'(#- Ðbecomes€provincial€history.€This€justifies€us€in€giving€noÐ  (ð#. Ðmore€than€a€rapid€sketch€of€the€following€centuries€(Holt,Ð h)¸$/ ÐLambton,€Lewis€€1970:471,483).Ð0*€%0(#(# ÐÌThis€dismissal€is€unacceptable,€both€in€principle€and€on€factualÐ À+'2 Ðgrounds.€Admittedly,€evidence€is€hard€to€come€by;€but€theÐ ˆ,Ø'3 ÐÔ_Ôarchaeological€maxim€applies:€absence€of€evidence€is€not€evidenceÐ ° Ðof€absence.€Ð xÈ ÐÌIn€his€discussion€of€the€supposed€"decline"€[his€quotation€marks]Ïof€the€Central€Asian€caravan€trade,€Rossabi€(1990:352)€stressesÏ"the€paucity€of€precise€information€about€this€commerce."€ÏNonetheless,€he€makes€several€observations,€some€more€and€othersÏless€acceptable.€To€begin€with,€Rossabi€observes€that€ChineseÏrecords€from€the€Ming€dynasty€suggest€that€this€commerce€did€òònotóóÏdecline€after€1400,€but€continued€into€the€sixteenth€century,€andÏindeed€even€into€the€early€seventeenth€€century.€Moreover,€like€ÏSteensgard€(1972)€also,€he€observes€that€trans„continentalÏcaravan€trade€was€òònotóó€replaced€by€circum„Asian€maritime€trade.ÏThe€latter€had€already€estimated€that€European€consumption€ofÏAsian€goods€coming€by€caravan€was€still€double€that€broughtÏaround€the€Cape€by€ship€(Steensgard€1972:168).€Both€authors€doÏobserve€declining€trans„Central€Asian€trade€in€the€seventeenthÏcentury.€We€will€examine€below€the€extent€to€which€and€why,Ïinsofar€as€there€was€any€decline,€it€was€primarily€cyclical€andÏhow€the€eighteenth€century€witnessed€a€renewed€recovery.€ButÏfirst,€it€is€well€to€place€both€this€kind€of€EurocentricÏideological€dismissal€and€the€real€Central€Asian€economic€recordÏin€the€broader€òòworldóó€political„economic€and€cultural€history€ofÏwhich€it€was€and€remains€an€important€part.€€ÌÌEUROCENTRISMÌÌThe€above„cited€Eurocentric€distortion€of€the€real€historicalÏrecord€has€its€roots€in€Adam€Smith€and€Karl€Marx.€Smith€wrote€inÏòòThe€Wealth€of€Nationsóó€in€1776:ÌÌà0..àThe€discovery€of€America,€and€that€of€the€passage€to€theÏEast€Indies€by€the€Cape€of€Good€Hope,€are€the€two€greatestÏevents€recorded€in€the€history€of€mankind€(SmithÏ1776/1937:557).ÌÌMarx€and€Engels€followed€in€their€òòCommunist€Manifestoóó€in€1848:Ì€Ìà0..àThe€discovery€of€America,€the€rounding€of€the€Cape,€openedÏup€fresh€ground€for€the€rising€bourgeoisie.€The€East„IndianÏand€Chinese€markets,€the€colonization€of€America,€trade€withÏthe€colonies,€the€increase€in€the€means€of€exchange€and€inÏcommodities€generally,€gave€€to€commerce,€to€navigation,€toÏindustry,€an€impulse€never€before€known,€and€thereby€to€theÏrevolutionary€element€in€the€tottering€feudal€society,€aÏrapid€development....€(Marx€and€Engels€1848).ÌÌAlas€however,€Smith€„€writing€still€before€the€industrialÏrevolution€in€Europe€„€was€the€last€major€[Western]€socialÏscientist€to€appreciate€that€Europe€was€a€johnny€come€lately€inÏthe€development€of€the€wealth€of€nations.€Smith€still€recognizedÏAsia€as€being€economically€far€more€advanced€and€richer€than€anything€in€Europe.€"The€improvements€in€agriculture€andÏmanufactures€seem€likewise€to€have€been€of€very€great€antiquityÏin€the€provinces€of€Bengal€in€the€East€Indies,€and€in€some€of€theÏeastern€provinces€of€China....€Even€those€three€countries€[China,ÏEgypt€and€Indostan],€the€wealthiest,€according€to€all€accounts,Ïthat€ever€were€in€the€world,€are€chiefly€renowned€for€theirÏsuperiority€in€agriculture€and€manufactures....€[Now€in€1776]ÏChina€is€a€much€richer€country€than€any€part€of€Europe"€(SmithÏ1937:€20,348,169).€ÌÌHowever€already€by€the€mid„nineteenth€century,€€Marx€saw€thingsÏfrom€a€new€[European]€perspective:€€England€was€allegedly€showingÏIndia€the€mirror€of€its€future€and€the€United€States€was€bringingÏprogress€to€Mexico€thanks€to€its€1846€war€against€that€country.ÏBut€whats€more,€Marx€alleged€that€the€"transition€from€feudalismÏto€capitalism"€and€the€"rising€bourgeoisie"€€òòin€Europeóó€hadÏtransformed€the€world,€supposedly€since€the€genesis€of€capitalÏ[if€not€capitalism]€in€the€sixteenth€century€„€also€in€Europe!ÏThen€with€the€spread€of€European€colonialism€in€the€second€halfÏof€the€thy€century,€world€history€was€re„written€wholesale€„€andÏsocial€science€was€[new]€born,€not€only€as€a€European,€but€as€aÏòòEurocentricóó€invention.€Other€social€"scientists"€may€have€risenÏto€dispute€against€Marx€[and€supposedly€to€agree€with€Smith],€butÏthey€all€agreed€with€each€other€òòand€with€Marx€óó€not€only€that€1492Ïand€1498€were€the€two€greatest€events€in€the€history€of€mankind,Ïbut€that€ever€since€that€history€had€been€marked€by€the€allegedÏuniqueness€of€[West]€Europeans,€which€supposedly€generated€"TheÏRise€of€the€West"€and€gave€rise€to€"the€€development€and€spreadÏof€capitalism"€in€the€world.€ÌÌForemost€among€these€fathers€[whatever€happened€to€the€mothers?]Ïof€modern€social€"science"€was€of€course€Max€Weber.€He€allegedÏthat€the€European€"Protestant€Ethic€and€the€Spirit€of€Capitalism"€Ïmade€"General€Economic€History,"€and€he€assiduously€studied€"TheÏReligions"€of€various€parts€of€Asia€to€show€that€„€and€supposedlyÏwhy!€„€the€poor€Asians€were€incapable€of€€doing€as€well.€WeberÏeven€wrote€a€book€to€deny€that€the€Chinese€had,€or€were€capableÏof€managing,€real€cities;€even€though€Song€China€had€already€hadÏcities€of€several€million€population,€while€[Western]€Europe'sÏlargest€city€had€barely€100,000€in€Venice€„€and€Europe's€reallyÏlargest€city€was€Constantinople/Istanbul€in€the€east,€which€wasÏnot€€"western"€or€even€very€"European"€[rational?]!€€Marx'sÏinvention€of€a€supposed€"Asiatic€Mode€of€Production,"€and€laterÏWittfogel's€[anti„Marxist]€ideas€about€Asian€"hydraulic/Ïbureaucratic"€societies€were€all€fashioned€to€this€sameÏEurocentric€end.€Tawney€turned€Weber€on€his€head€[as€Marx€hadÏdone€to€Hegel]€and€argued€that€in€fact€capitalism€came€first,€andÏthen€its€spirit.€No€matter,€for€both€agreed€on€the€fundamentalsÏwith€each€other€and€with€Marx:the€Rise€of€Capitalism€in€EuropeÏdue€to€European€exceptionalism.€And€so€of€course,€did€Sombart€whoÏstressed€European€rationalism€in€the€rise€of€capitalism,as€wellÏas€Hilferding,€and€you€name€him!€[all€German€white€men?].Ì€ÌThus,€for€the€past€century€and€a€half,€modern€world€and€economicÏhistory€has€been€[mis]read€and€social€science€theory€has€beenÏwritten€from€the€vantage€point€of€the€ascendance€of€the€West.ÏThat€in€turn€has€also€been€interpreted€in€almost€exclusivelyÏEurocentric€terms.€This€Western„centric€bias€in€modern€andÏeconomic€world€history€is€so€well€nigh€universal€as€to€make€itsÏdocumentation€hardly€necessary€or€even€possible.€At€least€sinceÏthe€nineteenth€century,€almost€all€modern€and€economic€worldÏhistory€has€been€written€as€though€it€began€in€Europe€around€1500Ïand€then€spread€out€from€there€to€"incorporate"€and€"modernize"Ïfirst€the€Americas€and€then€Africa€and€"traditional"€Asia.€ThisÏview€has€recently€been€termed€€òòThe€Colonizer's€Model€of€theÏWorld:€Geographical€Diffusionism€and€Eurocentric€Historyóó€€by€JimÏBlaut€(1993).€Moreover,€the€ancient€roots€of€this€"modernizing"Ïprocess€of€recent€"capitalist"€economic€development€andÏ"enlightened"€cultural/civilizational€progress€are€also€soughtÏfirst€within€[Western]€Europe€itself€and€earlier€on€in€Rome€andÏGreece.€The€"orientalising"€influence€of€Egypt€and€MesopotamiaÏupon€Greece€and€Rome€is€too€often€ignored,€as€Bernal€(1987)€hasÏargued€in€òòBlack€Athenaóó.€Even€their€ancient€history€isÏ"Europeanized"€as€a€supposed€direct€descendant€of€modern€EuropeanÏdevelopments.€They€drop€out€of€sight€and€out€of€mind€again€afterÏtheir€momentary€"contributions"€to€ò ò€European€ó óhistory€have€beenÏextracted€from€a€Eurocentric€perspective.€Afro„Asians'€€historyÏis€not€regarded€in€their€own€right.€Their€place€in€world€andÏeconomic€history,€as€well€as€their€far„reaching€contributions€toÏEurope€itself,€are€almost€completely€disregarded.€The€majorÏconcessions€are€to€note€in€passing€the€Asian€origins€of€suchÏ"items"€as€numbers,€compass,€gun€powder,€etc.€„„€but€omittingÏeven€printing,€which€originated€in€China€„€and€was€also€used€byÏthe€Arabs€„€many€centuries€before€Gutenberg€was€born!ÌÌYet,€Asian€economic€growth€and€intra„Asian€trade€continued€onÏvastly€greater€scales€than€European€trade€and€its€incursions€inÏAsia€until€the€nineteenth€century.€India€did€not€switch€fromÏbeing€a€net€exporter€of€textiles€to€being€a€net€importer€untilÏ1816.€Moreland's€(1936:201)€now€classic€òòHistory€of€Indiaóó€alreadyÏargued€that€"the€immediate€effects€produced€by€the€Portuguese€inÏIndia€were€not€great."€Van€Leur€(1955)€then€challenged€the€thenÏdominant€excessively€Eurocentric€interpretation€of€events€alsoÏelsewhere€in€Asia,€that€ÌÌà0..àthe€general€course€of€Asian€international€trade€remainedÏessentially€unchanged€(193)....€The€Portuguese€colonialÏregime,€then,€did€not€introduce€a€single€new€economicÏelement€into€the€commerce€of€southern€Asia€(118)....InÏquantity€Portuguese€trade€was€exceeded€many€times€by€theÏtrade€carried€on€by€Chinese,€Japanese,€Siamese,€Javanese,ÏIndians...€and€Arabs€(165)....€Trade€continued€inviolateÏeverywhere€(164)....€The€great€intra„Asian€trade€routeÏretained€its€full€significance€(165)....Any€talk€of€a€European€Asia€in€the€eighteenth€century€[a€forterioriÏearlier!]€is€out€of€the€question€(Van€Leur€1955:274).€ÌÌNow,€more€and€more€especially€Asian€scholarship€[eg.€ChaudhuriÏ(1978),€Das€Gupta€and€Pearson,€eds.€(1987),€Arasaratnam€(1986),Ïand€the€òòCambridge€Economic€History€of€Indiaóó€edited€byÏRaychaudhuri€and€Habib€(1982)]€has€confirmed€van€Leur's€messageÏthat€Asian€trade€was€a€flourishing€and€on„going€enterprise€intoÏwhich€the€Europeans€only€entered€as€an€added,€and€relativelyÏminor€player.€Indeed,€"the€change€comes€only€late€in€theÏeighteenth€century,€and€in€a€way€it€is€an€endogamous€game.ÏEuropeans€finally€burst€out,€and€changed€this€structure,but€theyÏexploded€from€within€an€Asian€context€(Das€Gupta€and€Pearson€Ï1987:20).Ì€ÌIn€political€terms,€the€hegemonic€influence€of€China,€India,€andÏthe€Ottomans€was€considerably€greater€than€that€of€the€Europeans.ÏAsian€hegemony€was€not€seriously€threatened€before€the€secondÏhalf€of€the€eighteenth€century.€Islam's€geographic€expansionÏcontinued€through€the€sixteenth€century.€Hodgson€(1974,€1993)€andÏDjait€(1985)€are€emphatic€that€Islam€was€still€decidedly€dominantÏ[hegemonic?]€in€the€world€at€the€end€of€that€century€or€evenÏlater€and€that€any€contemporary€observer€had€good€grounds€forÏanticipating€more€of€the€same.€ÌÌThus,€as€Abu„Lughod€(1989:388)€put€it€succinctly€"the€decline€ofÏthe€East€preceded€the€rise€of€the€West."€€But€the€question€comes:ÏWhen€did€this€happen,€and€why?€€Even€the€Europeanist€BraudelÏpoints€out€that€this€change€did€not€occur€in€the€sixteenthÏcentury,€as€is€so€widely€claimed€and€as€even€Wallerstein€(1974)Ïargues€in€this€examination€of€the€rise€of€the€"modern€world„¼system."€ÌÌA€more€Asian„based€alternative€reading€of€modern€and€economicÏworld€history€gives€Asia€more€of€its€historical€due.€Two€recentÏpioneering€departures€stand€out:€Janet€Abu„Lughod€(1989)Ïdescribed€a€h€century€Eurasian€world€system€òòò òBefore€EuropeanÏHegemonyóóó óòòóó,€and€Chaudhuri€(1990)€analyzed€òòò òAsia€Before€Europeóó€ó ó[alsoÏsee€Chaudhuri€(1978,€1985)].€As€their€titles€imply,€these€writersÏrecognize€the€significance€of€Asia€before€European€Hegemony.ÏHowever,€Abu„Lughod€limits€her€purview€to€the€thirteenth€centuryÏand€does€not€pursue€Eurasian€economic€history€into€more€modernÏtimes.€Only€Chaudhuri€recognizes€that€Asian€economic€lifeÏcontinued€to€prosper€long€after€the€supposed€sixteenth€centuryÏ"rise€of€the€West."€Paradoxically€however,€as€we€will€note€below,Ïso€does€Braudel€(1992)€when€he€is€not€blinded€by€fixation€on€"theÏEuropean€world„economy."€Although€he€was€not€a€close€"relative"Ïof€this€group,€another€important€precursor€in€this€recognitionÏwas€Marshall€Hodgson€(1974).€His€ò òó ómagistral€three€volumeò ò€ó óòòVentureÏof€Islam€óónot€only€claimed€the€central€place€in€world€history€forÏIslam€from€the€seventh€through€the€ninth€centuries,€he€alsoÏargued€that€Islam€still€or€again€merited€this€place€through€its€expansion€(again)€in€the€fourteenth€to€sixteenth€centuries.ÏSimilarly,€Hichem€Djait€(1985:110)€observes€that€in€1600€theÏgreater€part€of€the€human€race€was€in€Islamic€lands€ruled€by€theÏTurkish€Ottomans,€Persian€Safavids,€Indian€Mughals€and€otherÏMuslims€ranging€from€Africa€to€Southeast€Asia.€Hodgson€(1993:Ï100)€finds€Muslims€at€both€their€political€and€cultural€peak€inÏthe€sixteenth€and€still€in€the€seventeenth€centuries.€€ÌÌThe€preponderance€of€Asia€in€the€world€economy€has€been€maskedÏnot€only€by€the€attention€devoted€to€"the€rise€of€the€West"€inÏthe€world,€but€also€by€the€undue€focus€on€European€economic€andÏpolitical€penetration€of€Asia.€The€Europeans€did€not€in€any€senseÏ"create"€either€the€world€economic€system€itself€norÏ"capitalism."€€Europe€itself€was€not€a€first€rank€power€nor€anÏeconomic€core€region€during€these€three€centuries.ÌÌThe€historical€evidence€shows€rather€unequivocally€that€thisÏ"Great€Transformation"€(Polanyi€1957)€or€"transmutation"€asÏHodgson€calls€it,€was€not€completed€or€even€far€advanced€untilÏthe€end€of€the€eighteenth€century€or€the€beginning€of€theÏnineteenth.€Until€then€there€was€still€the€"Perspective€of€theÏWorld€in€Asia€Before€European€Hegemony€in€the€Modern€World„¼System"€to€combine€the€titles€of€Braudel,€Chaudhuri,€Abu„LughodÏand€Wallerstein.Ìò òó óÌÌEURò òASIAó ó€IN€THE€WORLD€ECONOMYÌÌAfroEurasian€history€had€long€since€been€cyclical,€or€at€leastÏpulsating.€The€present€millennium€began€with€a€period€of€system„¼wide€political€economic€expansion.€It€was€apparently€centered€atÏits€far€"eastern"€end€in€Song€China,€but€it€also€accelerated€anÏaccentuated€ò òreó ó„insertion€of€its€"western"€end€in€Europe,€whichÏresponded€by€going€on€several€Crusades€to€plug€its€marginalÏeconomy€more€effectively€into€the€new€Afro„Eurasian€dynamic.€AÏperiod€of€pan„AfroEurasian€political€economic€decline€and€evenÏcrisis€followed€in€the€late€thirteenth€and€especially€in€theÏfourteenth€century.€Another€long€period€of€expansion€began€in€theÏearly€fifteenth€century,€again€in€East€and€Southeast€Asia.€ItÏsoon€included€€Central„,€South„€and€West„€Asia,€and€after€the€midÏfifteenth€century€also€Africa€and€Europe.€The€"discovery"€andÏthen€conquest€of€the€Americas€and€the€subsequent€"ColumbianÏexchange"€were€a€direct€result,€and€part€and€parcel,€of€thisÏò òworld€ó óeconomy/system€wide€expansion.€ÌÌSo,€the€"long€sixteenth€century"€expansion€in€fact€began€in€theÏearly€fifteenth€century;€and€it€continued€through€the€seventeenthÏand€into€the€eighteenth€centuries.€This€expansion€also€continuedÏto€be€primarily€Asian€based,€although€it€was€also€fuelled€by€theÏnew€supplies€of€silver€and€golden€money€now€brought€by€theÏEuropeans€from€the€Americas.€ÌÌReflecting€the€macroeconomic€imbalances€and€also€responding€toÏcorresponding€microeconomic€opportunities€to€make€and€takeÏprofit,€the€silver€moved€around€the€world€in€a€predominantlyÏeastward€direction€across€the€Atlantic€and€„€via€Europe€„€acrossÏthe€Indian€Ocean,€and€westward€across€the€Pacific€from€theÏAmericas€and€Japan.€€Ultimately,€the€largest€silver€"sink"€was€inÏChina,€whose€relatively€greatest€productivity€and€competitivenessÏacted€like€a€magnet€for€the€largest€quantity€of€silver.€HoweverÏthere€as€elsewhere,€the€incoming€money€generated€increasedÏeffective€demand€and€stimulated€increased€production€andÏconsumption€and€thereby€supported€population€growth.€The€newÏsupply€of€money€failed€to€do€so€where€the€political€economy€wasÏinsufficiently€flexible€and€expandable€to€permit€growth€ofÏproduction€to€keep€pace€with€the€increase€in€the€supply€of€money.ÏIn€that€case€rising€effective€demand€drove€up€prices€inÏinflation,€which€is€what€happened€in€Europe.€ÌÌIn€Asia,€this€expansion€took€the€form€of€rapid€growth€ofÏpopulation,€production,€trade€including€imports€and€exports,€andÏpresumably€income€and€consumption€in€China,€Japan,€SoutheastÏAsia,€Central€Asia,€India,€Persia,€and€the€Ottoman€lands.ÏPolitically,€the€expansion€was€manifested€and/or€managed€by€theÏflourishing€Chinese€Ming/Qing,€Japanese€Tokugawa,€Indian€Mughal,ÏPersian€Safavid,€and€Turkish€Ottoman€and€Central€Asian€TumoridÏregimes.€The€European€populations€and€economies€grew€more€slowlyÏthan€all€but€the€last€of€the€above,€and€they€did€so€ratherÏdifferentially€among€each€other.€So€did€some€"national"€and€otherÏquite€multi„ethnic€European€states,€all€of€which€were€howeverÏmuch€smaller€than€the€large€ones€in€Asia.€The€increased€supply€ofÏmoney€and/or€population€generated€more€inflation€in€Europe€thanÏin€most€of€Asia,€where€increased€production€was€more€able€to€keepÏpace,€including€during€the€seventeenth€century.€In€much€of€EuropeÏhowever,€economic€and€political€growth€were€constrained€andÏregionally€even€reversed€in€a€major€"seventeenth€century€crisis,"Ïwhich€left€most€of€Asia€unscathed.€Therefore€also,€populationÏgrowth€was€faster€and€greater€in€Asia€than€in€Europe,€and€soÏcontinued€into€the€eighteenth€century€before€inflecting€afterÏ1750.ÌÌThe€so„called€"European€hegemony"€in€the€modern€world€system€wasÏvery€òòlateóó€in€developing€and€was€quite€òòincompleteóó€and€neverÏunipolar.€In€reality,€during€the€period€1400„1800,€sometimesÏregarded€as€the€period€of€"primitive€accumulation"€of€capitalÏleading€to€full€capitalism,€the€world€system€was€still€veryÏpredominantly€under€Asian€influences.€The€Chinese€Ming/Qing,ÏTurkish€Ottoman,€Indian€Mughal,€and€Persian€Safavid€empires€wereÏeconomically€and€politically€very€powerful€and€only€waned€vis€aÏvis€the€Europeans€toward€the€end€of€this€period€and€thereafter.ÏTherefore,€if€anything,€the€modern€world€system€was€under€òòAsianÏHegemonyóó,€not€European.€Likewise,€much€of€the€real€dynamism€ofÏthe€world€economy€also€still€lay€in€Asia€throughout€this€period,Ïnot€in€Europe.€Asians€were€preponderant€in€the€world€economy/system€in€production,€capital€formation,€trade,€andÏhegemonic€power€until€circa€1750.€One€indication€is€Asia's€shareÏof€world€population€grewe€from€60€percent€to€66€percent€in€1750.ÏHowever,€this€€Asian€population€then€still€produced€about€80Ïpercent€of€world€production.€The€absolute€growth€of€productionÏand€population€in€and€the€relative€shares€of€China€and€India€wereÏeven€greater.€Meanwhile,€over€the€several€centuries€"growth"ÏEurope's,€its€share€of€world€population€remained€stable€at€20Ïpercent€and€its€share€of€world€production€was€less€than€thatÏ[since€Africa€and€the€Americas€also€contributed€to€the€20€percentÏof€world€production€that€did€not€come€from€Asia]€(Frank€1997).€ÌÌThe€core€regions,€especially€of€industrial€production,€€were€inÏChina€and€India;€and€West€Asia€and€Southeast€Asia€also€remainedÏeconomically€more€important€than€Europe.€Likewise,€China€andÏIndia€were€the€primary€centres€of€the€accumulation€of€capital€inÏthe€world€system,€and€China€was€in€overall€balance€of€tradeÏsurplus€throughout€most€of€this€period.€€Indeed,€Europe€was€inÏdeficit€with€all€regions€to€the€East.€West€Asia€was€in€surplusÏwith€Europe,€but€in€deficit€with€India.€India€was€in€surplusÏwestward€but€in€deficit€eastward€to€Southeast€Asia€and€China,Ïwhence€India€re„exported€bullion€received€from€the€West.€ÌÌò òó óIn€world€economic€terms€not€even€India,€but€China€was€theÏfrontrunner,€exporting€huge€quantities€of€valuable€commoditiesÏand€importing€vast€quantities€of€silver.€India,€however,€does€notÏseem€to€have€been€far€"behind"€China€in€this€regard,€being€theÏseat€of€very€significant€industrial€centres,€particularly€inÏcotton€textiles,€and€importing€huge€quantities€of€bullion,€beingÏa€"sink"€for€gold€in€particular.€West€Asia€too€seems€to€haveÏcontinued€to€prosper€both€from€its€own€industrial€base,€in€cottonÏand€silk€textiles€for€instance,€and€from€trans„shipments€ofÏcommodities€between€Europe€and€the€rest€of€Asia.€Both€SoutheastÏAsia€and€Central€Asia€appear€to€have€prospered,€largely€on€theÏtrans„shipments€of€bullion€and€goods€between€regions,€but€in€theÏcase€of€Southeast€Asia€also€in€terms€of€silk€exports€of€its€localÏproduction,€especially€to€Japan.€One€thing€is€very€clear:€EuropeÏwas€not€a€major€industrial€center€in€terms€of€exports€to€the€restÏof€the€world€economy,€and€in€fact€it€had€a€chronic€balance€ofÏpayments€deficit€due€to€the€bullion€drain€to€Asia.€Only€itsÏcolonial€sphere€in€the€Americas€explains€its€viability€in€theÏworld€economy,€without€which€it€could€not€have€made€good€its€hugeÏdeficits€in€the€commodities€trade€with€Asia.€Even€so€it€never€hadÏenough€money€to€do€so€as€the€poor€Europeans€wished,€for€as€aÏDutch€trader€reported€home€in€1632,€"we€have€not€failed€to€findÏgoods€...€but€we€have€failed€to€produce€the€money€to€pay€forÏthem"€(Braudel€1979:€221).€This€problem€was€not€overcome€untilÏthe€end€of€the€eighteenth€century,€and€especially€the€nineteenthÏcentury€when€the€flow€of€money€was€finally€reversed€to€go€fromÏEast€to€West.ÌÌThus,€long€before€the€birth€of€the€"European€world„economy"€andÏstill€long€after€its€advent,€the€world€economy€had€a€far„flungÏdivision€of€labor€and€intricate€trade€system,€which€wasÏpreponderantly€Asian.€The€introduction€of€American€silver€[and€toÏa€lesser€extent€gold]€and€with€it€of€Europeans€into€this€Afro„¼Eurasian€economy€only€increased€and€accelerated€quantitativeÏeconomic€growth€in€an€otherwise€qualitatively€ongoing€system.€Ì€So€from€the€beginning€and€still€throughout€this€early€modernÏperiod€until€at€least€1800,€productivity,€production,€ò òandÏó óò òaccumulationó ó€was€greater€in€Asia€than€elsewhere€in€the€world.ÏIndeed€it€was€greater€in€each€of€two€or€more€"regional"€parts€ofÏAsia€than€in€any€other€"region"€of€the€world.€Mooreover,€ò òòòó óóótheÏincrease€in€European€[participation€in]€accumulation€was€possibleÏonly€thanks€to€its€use€of€American€silver€to€gain€access€to€theÏprocess€of€accumulation€in€Asia,€which€included€Inner€and€CentralÏAsia.€In€the€absence€of€that€economy€or€its€dynamic€in€Asia,ÏEurope€would€not€have€gone€or€gotten€anywhere!€That€is,€EuropeÏwould€have€remained€where€it€already€was:€in€world€economicÏterms,€just€about€nowhere;€or€it€would€have€made€its€way€onlyÏthrough€the€Atlantic€triangle,€which€was€much€smaller€and€poorerÏthan€the€Asian€economies.ÌòòÌÌóóA€SIN0„CENTRIC€WORLD€ECONOMYÌÌThus,€there€indeed€was€a€ò òglobe€ó óencircling€ò òworld„ó ówide€tradingÏsystem€and€division€of€labor.€It€bound€agricultural€"hinterlands"Ïand€peripheries€to€their€respective€provincial€and€regionalÏmetropolitan€centers€and€maritime€port€and/or€inland€emporiaÏcities.€These€in€turn€developed€and€maintained€dense€and€far„¼reaching€inter„provincial,€inter„regional,€and€world€systemicÏinter„"national"€economic€relations.€These€were€most€visibleÏthrough€traders€and€trade,€and€in€their€resultant€imbalances€ofÏtrade.€However,€the€former€also€reflected€widespread€andÏdeepgoing€inter„regional€and€inter„sectoral€complementarities€andÏcompetition€in€the€global€division€of€labor.€All€of€these€in€turnÏalso€reflect€the€relative€„€and€indeed€absolute€„€weight€andÏdominance€of€the€Asian€economies,€and€of€China€in€particular.ÏThis€global€multilateral€trade,€also€in€Asia,€was€expandedÏthrough€the€infusion€into€of€American€money€by€the€Europeans.ÏIndeed,€that€is€what€permitted€Europeans€to€increase€theirÏparticipation€in€the€global€economy,€which€until€and€even€throughÏthe€eighteenth€century€remained€dominated€by€Asian€production,Ïcompetitiveness,€and€trade.€ÌÌThe€"thirteenth€century€world€system"€and€ity€major€"regional"Ïpatterns€€analyzed€by€Abu„Lughod€(1989)€persisted€in€the€worldÏeconomy€through€the€eighteenth€century.€She€identified€threeÏmajor€„€and€within€each€of€these€some€minor€„€regions,€in€eightÏmutually€overlapping€regional€ellipses€that€covered€Afro„EurasiaÏin€her€account€of€the€world€economy.€These€included€regionsÏcentered€„€going€from€west€to€east€„€on€Europe,€the€Mediterranean,€the€Red€Sea,€the€Persian€Gulf,€the€Arabian€Sea,Ïthe€Bay€of€Bengal,€the€South€China€Sea,€as€well€as€Inner€andÏCentral€Asia.€€All€of€these€regions€continued€to€play€more€orÏless€major,€but€not€equal,€roles€in€the€world€economic€divisionÏof€labor€and€system€of€"international"€trade,€€despite€theÏaddition€of€an€Atlantic€ellipse€in€the€sixteenth€century.ÌÌHowever,€some€of€these€regions€were€certainly€more€equal€thanÏothers;€and€their€relative€positions€also€underwent€some€cyclicalÏor€other€temporal€changes.€Although€the€Atlantic€Ocean€displacedÏthe€Baltic€and€Mediterranean€Seas€as€the€preponderant€locus€ofÏEuropean€trade€in€the€eighteenth€century,€it€still€did€not€beginÏto€match€the€importance€of€the€Indian€Ocean€and€the€China€SeaÏregions€in€the€world€economy€and€its€trade.€A€number€of€works€byÏmostly€Asian€historians,€cited€above€and€also€in€the€chaptersÏthat€follow,€are€helping€to€put€the€Indian€Ocean€economy€on€theÏmap,€as€its€important€place€and€role€in€history€well€merits.€TheÏwork€of€Hamashita€(1988,1994)€on€the€centrality€of€China€in€theÏ"East€Asian€Tribute/Tade€System"€and€the€proposed€research€by€himÏand€Arrighi€and€Selden€(1996),€are€designed€to€help€remedy€theÏserious€neglect€of€China.€€The€present€account€can€alsoÏcontribute€to€the€elucidation€of€the€structure€and€transformationÏof€this€East€Asian€"regional"€economy€by€stressing€theÏlongstanding€bilateral€relations€of€China€with€Central€Asia.ÌÌThus€another€"regionalization"€of€the€world€economy€may€emerge,Ïwhich€could€be€visualized€in€the€form€of€concentric€circles.ÏAmong€these,€China€[and€within€that€the€Yangze€valley€and/orÏSouth€China]€would€form€the€innermost€circle.€The€"East€AsianÏTribute€Trade€System"€studied€by€Hamashita€(1988,1994)€would€formÏthe€next€circle,€which€beyond€China€included€at€the€very€leastÏparts€of€Central€Asia,€Korea,€Japan,€and€Southeast€Asia.€ÏHowever,€we€have€seen€that€the€boundaries€of€this€circle€as€wellÏwere€porous€and€uncertain,€and€Hamashita€himself€recognizes€itsÏextension€to€South€Asia.€That€in€turn€of€course€had€millenarianÏold€close€relations€with€West€Asia€and€East€Africa,€as€well€asÏwith€Central€Asia,€which€in€turn€became€increasingly€enmeshedÏwith€Russia€and€that€with€China.€These€regions€could€be€said€toÏform€a€next€outer€band,€which€we€can€then€perhaps€identify€as€anÏAsian,€or€Afro„Asian,€regional€circle.€So,€within€this€globalÏeconomic€circle,€we€can€then€successively€view€the€smallerÏconcentric€pan„Asian,€West€„,€Central„,€South„,€East„€Asian,€andÏChinese€economic€circles€in€ascending€order€of€"centrality."€ÏEurope€and€across€the€Atlantic€the€Americas€would€then€occupyÏtheir€rightful€places€in€the€outer€band€of€the€concentricÏcircles,€since€Asia€also€had€economic€relations€with€Europe€andÏthrough€its€mediation€with€the€Americas,€which€included€the€tradeÏfrom€Asia€directly€across€the€Pacific€on€the€"Manila€Galleaons."ÌApart€from€focusing€on€China,€East€Asia,€and€Asia€respectively€asÏmajor€world€economic€regions,€such€a€concentric€circle€mapping€ofÏthe€global€economy€also€puts€Europe€and€even€the€Atlantic€economyÏin€their€marginal€place.̇ÌThe€international€division€of€labor€and€relative€sectoralÏproductivity€and€regional€competitiveness€in€this€world€economyÏwere€€reflected€in€the€global€pattern€of€trade€balances€and€moneyÏflows.€These€regional€patterns€may€be€summarized€in€several€notÏmutually€exclusive€ways.€None€of€them,€however,€correspond€to€theÏreceived€image€of€a€"capitalist€world„economy"€that€began€inÏEurope€and€only€then€expanded€to€"incorporate"€one€region€afterÏanother€elsewhere€in€the€world€until€the€West€dominated€them€all.ÌIn€the€structure€of€the€world€economy,€four€major€regionsÏmaintained€built„in€deficits€of€commodity€trade:€The€Americas,ÏJapan,€Africa€and€Europe.€The€first€two€balanced€their€deficit€byÏproducing€silver€money€for€export.€Africa€exported€gold€money€andÏslaves.€That€is€in€economic€terms,€these€three€regions€alsoÏproduced€"commodities"€for€which€there€was€a€demand€elsewhere€inÏthe€world€economy.€The€fourth€deficitary€region,€Europe,€wasÏhardly€able€to€produce€anything€of€its€own€for€export€with€whichÏto€balance€its€perpetual€trade€deficit.€Europe€managed€to€do€soÏprimarily€by€"managing"€the€exports€of€the€three€other€deficitaryÏregions,€from€Africa€to€the€Americas,€from€the€Americas€to€Asia,Ïand€from€Asia€to€Africa€and€the€Americas.€The€Europeans€alsoÏparticipated€to€some€extent€in€trade€within€Asia,€especiallyÏbetween€Japan€and€elsewhere.€€This€is€intra„Asian€"country"€tradeÏwas€marginal€for€Asia€but€nonetheless€vital€for€Europe,€whichÏearned€more€from€it€than€from€its€own€trade€with€Asia.ÌÌSoutheast€Asia€and€West€Asia€also€produced€some€silver€and€goldÏmoney,€which€contributed€to€balance€their€trade.€Unlike€EuropeÏhowever,€they€were€able€also€to€produce€some€other€commoditiesÏfor€which€there€also€was€an€export€demand.€Both€Southeast„€andÏWest„€Asia€also€realized€"export"€earnings€from€their€respectiveÏlocations€at€the€south€eastern€and€south€western€trade€turntablesÏof€the€central€Asian€economies.€To€some€extent,€so€did€CentralÏAsia.€Ì€Ìò òThe€ó ómajor€importer€and€re„exporter€of€both€silver€and€goldÏbullion€was€Western€and€Southern€Europe,€to€cover€its€ownÏperpetual€massive€structural€balance€of€trade€[b/t]€deficit€withÏall€other€regions,€except€[perhaps]€with€the€Americas€and€Africa,Ïalthough€the€Europeans€received€African€and€especially€AmericanÏbullion€without€giving€much€in€return.€Western€Europe,€had€a€b/tÏdeficit€with€and€therefore€re„exported€much€silver€and€some€goldÏto€the€Baltics€and€Eastern€Europe,€to€West€Asia,€to€IndiaÏdirectly€and€via€West€Asia,€to€Southeast€Asia€directly€and€viaÏIndia,€and€to€China€via€all€of€the€above€as€well€as€from€Japan.€ÌÌWest€Asia€had€a€b/t€surplus€with€Europe,€but€a€b/t€deficit€withÏSouth„,€Southeast„,€and€East€Asia€[and€with€Central€Asia?].€WestÏAsia€covered€its€b/t€deficits€to€the€East€with€the€re„export€ofÏbullion€derived€from€its€b/t€surplus€with€Europe,€the€Maghreb€andÏvia€it€with€West€Africa,€and€gold€from€East€Africa,€as€well€asÏsome€of€its€own€production€of€both€gold€and€silver,€especially€in€Persia.€India€had€a€massive€b/t€surplus€with€Europe€and€some€withÏWest€Asia,€based€mostly€on€its€more€efficient€low€cost€cottonÏtextile€production€and€export.€These€went€westwards€to€Africa,ÏWest€Asia,€Europe,€and€from€there€on€Across€the€Atlantic€to€theÏCaribbean€and€the€Americas.€In€return,€India€received€massiveÏamounts€of€silver€and€some€gold€from€the€West,€directly€aroundÏthe€Cape€or€via€West€Asia.€India€also€exported€cotton€textiles€toÏand€imported€spices€from€Southeast€Asia,€and€also€via€the€sameÏexchanged€cotton€textiles€for€silk€and€porcelain€and€otherÏceramics€from€China.€However,€India€had€a€b/t€deficit€withÏSoutheast€Asia€and€especially€with€China.€Therefore,€India€wasÏobliged€also€to€re„export€especially€silver€both€to€SoutheastÏAsia€and€to€China.€Southeast€Asia€exported€spices€and€tin€of€itsÏown€production€to€Europe,€West€Asia,€India€€and€re„exportedÏimports€from€India€to€China,€which€were€its€major€customers,€someÏeight€times€more€than€Europe.€Additionally,€Southeast€AsiaÏexported€gold€from€its€own€production€to€India,€China,€and€Japan,Ïalthough€it€received€silver€from€India,€some€of€which€it€also€wasÏre„exported€to€China€via€Malacca.€So,€Southeast€Asia€seems€toÏhave€had€a€b/t€surplus€with€India€[and€of€course€with€West€AsiaÏand€Europe]€but€still€a€b/t€deficit€with€China.ÌÌChina€had€a€b/t€surplus€with€everybody,€based€on€its€unrivalledÏmanufacturing€production€and€export€of€silks€and€porcelain€andÏother€ceramics.€Therefore,€China,€which€like€India€had€aÏperpetual€silver€shortage,€was€ò òtheó ó€major€net€importer€of€silverÏand€met€much€of€its€need€for€coinage€out€of€imports€of€AmericanÏsilver€which€arrived€via€Europe,€West€Asia,€India,€Southeast€AsiaÏand€with€the€Manilla€galleons€directly€from€Acapulco.€China€alsoÏreceived€massive€amounts€of€silver€and€copper€from€Japan€and€someÏthrough€the€overland€caravan€trade€across€Central€Asia.€€ÌÌSo€the€two€major€regions€that€were€most€"central"€to€the€worldÏeconomy€were€India€and€China.€That€centrality€rested€primarily€onÏtheir€outstanding€absolute€and€relative€productivity€inÏmanufactures.€In€India,€these€were€primarily€its€cotton€textilesÏthat€dominated€the€world€market,€and€to€a€lesser€extent€its€silkÏtextiles,€especially€in€India's€most€productive€Bengali€region.ÏOf€course,€this€competitiveness€in€manufacturing€also€rested€onÏproductivity€on€the€land€and€in€transport€and€commerce.€TheyÏsupplied€the€inputs€necessary€to€supply€raw€materials€toÏindustry,€food€to€workers,€and€transport€and€trade€for€both,€asÏwell€as€for€export€and€import.ÌÌThe€other,€and€even€more€"central"€economy€was€China.€Its€evenÏgreater€centrality€was€based€on€its€even€greater€absolute€andÏrelative€productivity€in€industry,€agriculture,€[water]Ïtransport,€and€trade.€China's€even€greater,€indeed€the€worldÏeconomy's€greatest,€productivity,€competitiveness€and€centralityÏwas€reflected€in€its€most€favorable€balance€of€trade.€That€wasÏbased€primarily€on€its€world€economic€export€leadership€in€silksÏand€ceramics€and€its€exports€also€of€gold€and€copper€coin€and€later€of€tea.€These€exports€in€turn€made€China€the€"ultimateÏsink"€of€the€world's€silver,€which€flowed€there€to€balanceÏChina's€almost€perpetual€export€surplus.€Of€course,€China€wasÏonly€able€to€satisfy€its€insatiable€"demand"€for€silver;€becauseÏit€also€had€an€inexhaustible€supply€of€exports,€which€were€inÏperpetual€demand€elsewhere€in€the€world€economy.€ÌÌThe€complexity€of€the€international€division€of€labor€and€theÏnetwork€of€world€trade€was€of€course€vastly€greater€than€thisÏsimplified€summary.€However,€even€this€mere€summary€statementÏshould€suffice€to€indicate€that€and€how€all€of€these€worldÏregions€were€integral€parts€of€a€single€world€economic€systemÏbetween€about€1400€and€1800€AD.€And€so€was€Central€Asia!ÌÌÌCENTRAL€ASIAN€DECLINE€OR€CONTINUED€CENTRALITY€OF€CENTRAL€ASIA?€ÌÌThere€has€been€much€debate€about€the€"decline"€of€Central€Asia.ÌAlas,€some€of€it€simply€repeats€suppositions,€such€as€theÏalledged€replacement€of€trans„Asian€overland€by€circum„AsianÏmaritime€trade,€without€even€checking€the€historical€evidence.ÌWe€will€review€that€below.€Other€terms€of€the€debate€have€beenÏguided€by€anything€but€historical€accuracy.€Thus,€Russians€andÏCentral€Asian€have€marshalled€quite€a€lot€of€"evidence"€duringÏSoviet€times,€as€surveyed€by€Weinerman€(1993).€€Alas€however,€theÏevidence€is€difficult€to€interpret;€since€it€was€used€and€misusedÏin€debates€whose€focus€fluctuated€back€and€forth€over€time€inÏaccord€with€changing€Soviet€political€interests€and€ideologicvalÏlines.€To€legitimize€Soviet€power€in€Central€Asia,€it€wasÏconvenient€to€contrast€it€favorably€with€Czarist€contributions€toÏthe€"decline€of€Central€Asia."€€When€Central€Asian€nationalismÏchallenged€Moscow's€rule€and€the€latter€wanted€to€defuse€theÏformer,€it€became€convenient€even€for€the€Soviets€to€argue€thatÏRussian€rule€even€under€the€Czars€had€not€been€so€bad€after€all.€ÏThen€the€evidence€was€marshalled€to€show€that€the€seventeenthÏcentury€"decline"€in€Central€Asia€was€already€overcome€and€againÏreversed€in€the€eighteenth€century.€Related€debates€pittedÏRussians€and€Central€Asians€against€each€other€on€the€question€ofÏwhether€the€former€or€the€latter€themselves€deserved€the€creditÏfor€the€"recovery"€and/or€whether€the€earlier€"decline"€was€onlyÏa€Russian€myth€in€the€first€place.€ÌÌAdditionally,€the€debates€about€decline€and/or€progress€inÏCentral€Asia€was€also€a€function€of€the€perennial€dispute€aboutÏ"modes€of€production"€and€whether€"capitalism."€€Did€it€germinateÏand€flourish€indigenously€in€Central€Asia?€Was€it€strangled€orÏpromoted€there€by€Russian€colonialism?€How€does€Soviet€powerÏand/or€ideology€serve€anti„colonialism€and€the€"non„capitalist"Ïand€then€"socialist"€path€in€the€Third€World€„€and€in€CentralÏAsia?€€Here€is€yet€another€illustration€of€how€literally€mis„¼leading€these€"mode€of€production"€categories€are.€They€distractÏour€attention€from€what€ò òrealó óly€went€on,€as€I€have€argued€in€Frank€(1991/93,€1996).€The€political/€ideological€motivation€andÏunderpinning€of€this€still€ongoing€debate€renders€the€"evidence"€Ïmarshalled€by€all€sides€€rather€suspect€for€our€more€"innocent"Ïuse,€although€readers€of€Russian€may€be€able€to€separate€someÏgrain€out€from€all€that€chaff.€I,€alas,€am€obliged€to€return€toÏother€sources.ÌÌCertainly€there€was€no€"decline"€of€Central€Asia€before€1600.€ÌSixteen€times€more€spices€were€transported€overland€by€AsiansÏthrough€West€and€parts€of€Central€Asia€than€went€around€the€CapeÏon€Portuguese€ships€in€1503,€and€still€almost€four€times€as€manyÏtook€the€Red€Sea€route€as€the€Cape€route€in€1585€(Das€Gupta€1978:Ï257).€ÌÌThen€the€question€comes€to€what€extent€any€economic€"decline"€inÏCentral€Asia€was€or€was€not€part€of€the€"seventeenth€centuryÏcrisis,"€which€has€been€widely€remarked€upon€for€various€parts€ofÏthe€world,€in€particular€Europe€and€Southeast€Asia.€FletcherÏ(1985:54)€also€asked€specifically€"is€there€a€general€economicÏrecession€in€the€seventeenth€century€or€not?"€The€answer€seems€toÏbe€No.€There€were€two„three€decade€long€crises€also€in€China€andÏJapan,€and€perhaps€the€Ottoman€Empire.€However,€they€wereÏapparently€caused€by€temporary€problems€of€climatic€andÏagricultural€production,€[world]€silver€supply€and€fiscalÏdeficits,€and€consequent€political€upheaval.€Reviewing€AsiaÏregion€by€region€over€the€century€as€a€whole€shows€that€there€wasÏò òno€ó ósuch€general€"seventeenth€century€crisis"€in€Asia.€On€theÏcontrary,€the€seventeenth€century€witnessed€continued,€if€notÏalways€continual,€economic€expansion€in€many€parts€of€Asia,€andÏespecially€in€East„,€South„,€and€West„Asia€(Frank€1997).ÌÌRossabi€attributes€decline€in€and€of€€Central€Asia€to€two€mainÏfactors:€severe€draught€[the€little€ice€age]€and€politicalÏupheaval,€including€especially€that€which€ended€the€Ming€DynastyÏin€1644€and€replaced€it€by€the€Manchus,€the€fall€of€the€TimuridÏEmpire€in€western€Central€Asia,€and€problems€with€Mughal€rule€inÏnorthern€India.€Chinese€tribute/trade€missions€to€the€Tarim€BasinÏoases€did€decline€at€the€end€of€the€sixteenth€century,€and€evenÏmoreso€before€1640€during€the€last€decades€of€Ming€rule,€whenÏTurfan€also€sought€to€assert€control€over€the€northern€TarimÏbasin€trade€routes.€Mongol„Ming€relations€also€deteriorated€againÏ(Rossabi€1975€and€1990).€However,€one€student€attributes€at€leastÏsome€of€the€decline€also€to€more€distant€problems€among€theÏSafavids€along€€the€other€end€of€the€line€in€Persia€(AdsheadÏ1988:€196„7).ÌÌIt€is€easier€to€accept€Rossabi's€€empirically€based€observationÏthat€€"the€common€assumption€that€seaborne€commerce€supersededÏcaravan€trade€needs€qualification"€(Rossabi€1990:367).€MoreÏdoubtful€is€attribution€in€the€next€sentence€that€the€seventeenthÏcentury€decline€must€be€due€to€"the€political€disruptions€thatÏafflicted€most€of€the€Asian€regions€through€which€caravans€travelled€were€major€causes€for€the€decline....€In€sum,€theÏdecline€of€central€Asian€caravan€trade€cannot€be€attributedÏsolely€to€economic€considerations"€(Rossabi€1990:€367).€Perhaps,Ïbut€why€could€the€cause„effect€relation€not€have€been€the€otherÏway€around:€that€drought€and€economic€decline€generated€politicalÏconflict?€That€has€generally€been€[more]€true€elsewhere€and€alsoÏat€other€times,€and€could€more€plausibly€explain€why€"commerceÏvia€northwest€China€declined€considerably"€(Rossabi€1975:€264).ÏIn€East€and€South€Asia€however,€climatic€problems€were€especiallyÏsevere€only€in€the€decade€of€the€1630s.€The€early€and€laterÏseventeenth€century€was€a€period€of€marked€economic€expansion€inÏboth€China€and€India.€That€renders€the€thesis€of€such€"decline"Ïdoubtful€also€in€Central€Asia.€This€is€all€the€moreso€the€case,Ïinasmuch€as€trans„Central€Asian€trade€revived€again€along€withÏthe€eighteenth€century€trade€expansion€and€"commercialÏrevolution"€elsewhere,€which€had€already€started€in€theÏseventeenth€century.€Steensgard€(1972)€observed€that€then€tradeÏshifted€to€a€more€northerly€route€between€Russia€and€China.€PeterÏthe€Great€and€his€followers€certainly€promoted€and€benefited€fromÏthis€Russian€trade.ÌÌSimilarly,€Fletcher€(1985/1995)€also€rejects€the€argument€[orÏrather€the€assumption]€that€trans„continental€trade€was€replacedÏby€maritime€trade,€but€he€does€notice€"nomadic€economic€decline"Ïbeginning€in€1660€in€Outer€Mongolia.€Like€Steensgard€also,€heÏremarks€on€the€establishment€of€more€northerly€trade€routes€byÏRussian€traders€also€serving€a€growing€population€in€Siberia.ÏSince€1670€already,€the€Russians€increasingly€displaceÏ"Bukhariot"€traders€[who€were€not€only€from€Bukharia]€whoÏpreviously€had€a€corner€on€the€more€southerly€long„distanceÏroutes€across€Central€Asia.€€Fletcher€stresses€three€additionalÏfactors:€one€is€the€seventeenth€century€demographic€decline,Ïwhich€was€common€to€much€of€Eurasia€[and€plays€the€key€role€inÏGoldstone's€(1991)€demographic/structural€analysis€of€crisisÏafter€1640].€Another€were€the€advances€in€military€[gun]Ïtechnology,€which€made€warfare€much€more€expensive€and€put€nomadÏbands€at€a€„since€then€permanent€„€€competitive€disadvantage€withÏlarger/richer€states/empires,€as€proposed€by€Hess€(1973).ÌÌA€third€observation€by€Fletcher€is€that€intra„òòregionalóó€tradeÏexpanded€in€various€parts€of€Eurasia.€This€regionalism€may€haveÏdiminished€the€market€for€òòtransóó„Central€Asian€trade.€However,Ïthat€did€òònotóó€deprive€particular€parts€or€regions€of€Central€AsiaÏof€economic€functions€as€suppliers€and€markets€for€regionsÏcontiguous€to€them,€which€were€growing€economically€andÏcommercially.€€Thus,€we€have€already€observed€above€that€both€theÏspice€and€the€silk€trades€actually€made€òòincreasingóó€use€of€caravanÏtrade€routes€through€òòpartsóó€of€Central€Asia,€contiguous€andÏcomplimentary€to€the€Persian€Gulf€and€Read€Sea€trade€routesÏbetween€Asia€and€Europe.€Similarly,€the€Moghul€expansionÏsouthward€through€the€Indian€subcontinent€generated€a€largeÏdemand€for€horses,€for€military€and€other€purposes,€for€whichÌvarious€regions€in€Central€Asia€were€the€"natural"€suppliers,Ïboth€in€the€west€along€with€Persia€and€farther€east€in€Tibet€andÏYunnan.€Travellers€like€Marco€Polo€and€Ibn€Batuta€had€alreadyÏremarked€on€these€Central€Asian€regions'€very€profitable€sale€ofÏhorses€southward€into€India€as€analyzed€by€Richards€(1993)€forÏthe€thirteenth€and€fourteenth€centuries.€The€horse€tradeÏcontinued,€however,€in€later€€times€as€well.€Reportedly,€100,000Ïhorses€a€year€were€exported€from€Central€Asia€in€the€earlyÏseventeenth€century,€of€which€12,000€alone€for€the€Mughal'sÏstables€(Burton€1993:28).€ÌÌSimilarly,€regional€trade€persisted€„€in€its€age„old€fluctuatingÏfashion€„€between€the€Mongols€and€China,€although€the€formers'Ïlast€serious€military€threat€€[but€not€yet€competition,€seeÏbelow]€to€the€latter€seems€to€have€been€repelled€by€the€Ming.€ToÏdo€so€however,€they€had€to€turn€their€attention€northward„€andÏeven€move€their€capital€northward€to€Bejing€„€and€sacrifice€manyÏcommercial€maritime€opportunities€in€the€South€after€they€haltedÏfurther€trade€missions,€such€as€Chen€Ho's€in€1433.€This€sameÏregionalization€and€the€new€methods€and€costs€of€warfare€thatÏFletcher€stressed€€may€be€the€explanation€for€the€events,€whichÏTogan€analyzes€when€she€writesÌÌà0..àthe€aim€of€this€paper€is€to€bring€a€further€qualification€toÏthe€decline€of€the€Silk€Routes€by€demonstrating€that€tradeÏand€traders€did€not€cease€to€function€[in€the€seventeenthÏcentury],€and€that,€instead,€state€formations€that€wereÏplaying€the€role€of€intermediaries€along€the€Silk€routesÏwere€eliminated.€Their€elimination€was€due€to€the€expansionÏof€the€sedentary€empires€of€the€early€modern€age.€It€was€Ïthe€moment€[1698]€when€two€of€these€empires,€the€Chinese€andÏthe€Russian,€came€to€direct€contact€with€each€other€...€thatÏthe€intermediaries€lost€their€function.€As€a€result,€theÏmerchants,€in€this€case€the€[Bukharan]€Muslim€merchants€ofÏthe€Silk€routes,€became€merchants€of€the€empires€who€wereÏinvolved€much€more€with€internal€trade€within€these€empiresÏthan€with€transcontinental€trade,€as€was€the€case€earlierÏ(Togan€1990:2).€€ÌÌHowever€as€Adshead€(1993:€179)€suggests,€these€developments€alsoÏmeant€that€the€seventeenth€century€decline€of€trans„Central€AsianÏcaravan€East„West€trade€was€complemented€if€not€replaced€by€Ïregional€North„South€trades,€so€that€"Central€Asia€did€notÏdecline"€(Adshead€1993:200).€For€Sino„Central€Asian€trade,ÏRossabi€(1975:€139„165)€catalogues€Chinese€imports€from€CentralÏAsia€of€horses,€camels,€sheep,€furs,€swords,€jade,€ginseng€andÏother€medicines,€as€well€as€gold€and€silver;€and€Chinese€exportsÏof€paper€money€[spendable€only€in€China€on]€textiles,€clothing,Ï[other]€drugs,tea,€paper,€porcelain,€and€after€the€late€fifteenthÏcentury€some€silver€instead€of€paper€money.ÌÌThe€trade€and€trade€routes€of€both€West„€and€South„€Asia€hadÏalways€been€and€continued€to€be€intimately€tied€into€„€andÏthrough€„€€adjoining€regions€of€Central€Asia.€Indian€inland€tradeÏmoved€by€ubiquitous€short„haul€coastal€[small€boat]€shipping,Ïover€inland€waterways€where€available€such€as€in€parts€of€SouthÏIndia,€and€mostly€by€caravan€numbering€€10,000€to€20,000€[someÏreports€say€up€to€40,000]€pack€animals€at€a€time,€as€well€as€byÏvarious€combinations€of€all€of€the€above€„„€and€with€transhipmentÏto€or€from€long€distance€maritime€trade.€"We€see€the€relationÏbetween€activities€on€land€and€sea€as€asymmetric.€Most€of€theÏtime€sea€activities€had€less€influence€on€those€on€land€than€viceÏversa"€(Pearson€and€Das€Gupta€1987:5)€€Almost€all€the€port€citiesÏwere€in€organic€symbiosis€with€the€caravan€routes€into€and€fromÏtheir€respective€hinterland€interiors€and€sometimes€also€withÏdistant€trans„continental€regions,€especially€in€Central€Asia.€InÏsouthern€India,€the€inland€capital€of€Vijayanagara€was€for€a€longÏtime€the€focal€point€of€trade€to€and€from€Goa€in€the€west,ÏCalicut€in€the€south,€and€Masulipatnam€and€Pulicat€on€theÏCoromandel€coast€to€the€east.€These€and€many€other€port€cities,Ïand€of€course€especially€those€with€no€or€relatively€unproductiveÏhinterlands,€were€highly€dependent€on€staple€food€imports,€viaÏother€port€cities€from€father€up€or€down€the€coast,€but€oftenÏalso€from€ports€with€access€to€rice€and€other€grain€producingÏareas€thousands€of€miles€distant.€Moreover,€€the€first€and€lastÏnamed€port€cities€and€Vijayanagara€also€had€overland€connectionsÏto€the€north,€both€to€inland€centers€such€as€Hyderabad€andÏBurhanpur€and€to€the€northwest€Indian€port€of€Surat€[or€at€otherÏtimes€Cambay],€which€in€turn€were€entrepots€for€the€Punjab€andÏnorth€of€that€Central€Asia.€However,ÌÌà0..àthe€trade€of€Central€Asia€had€no€such€direct€connectionsÏwith€the€sea,€and€yet€the€whole€regions€itself€exercised€aÏvital€influence€on€the€lives€of€the€people€closer€to€theÏmonsoon€belts€of€the€Indian€Ocean.€In€terms€of€directÏrelationships,€the€Central€Asia€caravan€trade€wasÏcomplementary€to€the€trans„continental€maritime€commerce€ofÏEurasia....€The€rhythm€of€trade€and€its€volume€wereÏthemselves€function€of€the€two€separate€conduits.€When€theÏoverland€route€was€obstructed€or€made€politically€unsafe,Ïthe€seaborne€trade€gained€at€its€expense....€The€overlandÏtrade€followed€geographical€lines€which€had€been€worked€outÏover€many€centuries,€and€the€relative€merits€of€alternativeÏroad„systems€were€well€understood.€The€trade€was€also€highlyÏorganised€(Chaudhuri€1978:€172)ÌÌMoreover,€there€was€a€millenarian€and€still€continuing€India€„ÏChina€trade€across€Nepal€and€Tibet.€That€is,€Bengal€and€AssamÏexported€textiles,€indigo,€spices,€sugar,€hides€and€other€goodsÏto€Tibet€for€sale€to€merchants€there€who€took€them€on€for€sale€inÏChina.€Payment€was€in€Chinese€products,€tea,€and€often€asÏnecessary€gold€(Chakrabarti€1990).€[I€have€discussed€some€of€these€Central€Asian€routes€and€their€"silk€road"€history€in€FrankÏ(1992).ÌÌòòóóNorth„south€trade€routes€also€ran€through€Russia,€especiallyÏalong€the€major€rivers,€into€the€Ottoman€and€Persian€empires,€toÏwhom€Russia€also€exported€furs€and€re„exported€some€silver€andÏgold€in€turn.€€Persia€became€the€major€West€Asian€exporter€ofÏsilk,€produced€at€costs€that€were€lower€even€than€those€of€ChinaÏand€then€of€Bengal€(Attman€1981:40).€Major€importers€were€Russia,ÏCaucasia,€Armenia,€Mesopotamia,€the€Ottomans,€as€well€as€via€theÏOttomans€the€Europeans.€This€trade€€generated€important€earningsÏof€silver€and€other€income€for€the€Persians€producers€fromÏRussia,€Europe€and€the€Ottomans,€but€also€made€profits€for€theÏOttoman€middlemen.€ÌÌTrade€between€Russia€and€Central€Asia€[in€the€latter€especiallyÏto€Khiva,€Bukhara€and€Balkh,€and€to/from€Orenburg€and€severalÏother€Siberian€cities]€also€continued€to€prosper€and€indeed€inÏthe€eighteenth€century€to€grow.€First,€the€caravans€from€CentralÏAsia€had€also€to€carry€some€gold€and€silver€in€settlement€forÏtheir€purchase€of€Russian€exports.€However€in€the€laterÏeighteenth€century,€the€exchange€became€more€balanced€as€CentralÏAsians€exported€more€cotton€and€textiles€to€the€Russians;€andÏthen€the€balance€of€trade€turned€to€favor€Central€Asia,€andÏRussia€itself€had€to€export€precious€metals€to€the€Central€AsiansÏand€then€also€to€China€(Attman€1981:€112„124).€Accordingly,€oneÏTsar€after€another€issued€edicts€prohibiting€the€export€ofÏprecious€metals€and€coin.€Beginning€in€the€mid„seventeenthÏcentury€and€all€the€moreso€in€the€eigtheenth€century,€the€RussianÏstate€sought€to€reserve€trade€to€its€subjects€and€to€excludeÏBukharan€and€other€Central€Asian€competition€(Burton€1993).€ÌÌMoreover,€with€Russian€expansion€into€and€through€Siberia,Ïbeginning€rapidly€in€the€first€half€of€the€seventeenth€century,Ïthe€export€of€furs€from€Siberia€increasingly€complimented€thoseÏfrom€European€Russia;€therefore,€money€flowed€farther€eastward€asÏwell€and€itself€helped€open€up€Siberia.€At€the€eastern€end€ofÏSiberia€and€Eurasia,€the€Russians€became€important€customers€forÏtea€from€China,€and€Russian€€merchants€and€the€Czarist€governmentÏsought€trading€privileges€in€the€eastern€Russian„Central€Asian„¼Chinese€regional€trade.ÌÌAfter€the€rapid€Russian€advance€through€Siberia€in€the€first€halfÏof€the€seventeenth€century,€Sino„Russian€competition€for€CentralÏAsian€and€Siberian€trade€and€territory€and€political€power€waxedÏand€waned.€The€Russians€seemed€more€intent€on€[long€distance]Ïtrade,€and€the€Chinese€were€apparently€more€concerned€withÏpolitical€control€[that€offered€regional/local€tribute€andÏtrade].€By€mutual€agreement€therefore,€Russian€trade€wasÏsafeguarded€but€its€political€power€in€the€region€was€ceeded€inÏthe€1689€the€Treaty€of€Nerchinsk€to€China,€until€the€latter€again€lost€control€in€1860€and€only€regained€any€in€the€mid„twentiethÏcentury.ÌÌIndeed,€the€Western€Mongols€gained€control€of€the€Oases€along€theÏnorthern€branch€of€the€Silk€Road€through€the€Tarim€basin€[whichÏthe€Chinese€had€controlled€only€off€and€on€since€Han€times];€andÏanother€competitive€struggle€for€this€vital€area€ensued€until€theÏQuin€regime€finally€annexed€to€China€the€by€now€largely€MuslimÏUighur€Xinjiang€[whose€interest€in€regaining€its€independence€hasÏonly€been€heightened€by€the€recent€separation€of€the€MuslimÏSoviet€Central€Asian€republics].ÌÌIn€the€late€seventeenth€and€from€the€early€eighteenth€centuries,Ïtrans„continental€trade€was€diverted€from€the€more€southerlyÏroutes€across€Central€Asia€to€more€northerly€ones€through€Russia.ÏIn€part,€this€change€followed€or€accompanied€the€€RussianÏsettlement€of€Siberia.€In€part,€as€a€consequence€of€the€same,Ïthere€was€increasing€€Sino„Russian€cross„border€and€onward€trade.ÏIn€part,€Russian€rulers€since€Ivan€the€Terrible€[1533„1584]€hadÏbeen€trying€to€shift€or€entice€the€Silk€Road€to€pass€throughÏRussian€territory€(Anisimov€1993:255).€Peter€the€Great€[1682„¼1725)€was€determined€to€succeed.€He€wrote€to€his€ambassador€toÏPersia€"...is€it€possible€to€make€some€obstacle€to€the€Smyrna€andÏAleppo€trade,€where€and€how?"€(cited€in€Anisimov€1993:255).ÏMoreover,€Peter€also€had€other€related€ideas:€War€against€PersiaÏin€1722€[taking€advantage€of€its€temporary€weakness€due€toÏtroubles€at€the€Safavid€palace]€€and€then€with€Turkey€in€1723,Ïwith€whom€he€sought€to€partition€Persian€territories€and€tradeÏroutes,€all€for€commercial€reasons.€When€he€captured€Baku€on€theÏCaspian€Sea,€he€was€"toasted€joyfully€[to]€the€health€of€PeterÏthe€Great,€who€had€entered€upon€the€path€of€Alexander€the€Great"Ï„„€to€India!€(ibid€259).€The€magnet€for€Peter€were€the€riches€andÏtrade€of€India,€and€it€became€an€obsession€with€him€to€find€aÏwater€route€thither.€He€sought€one€or€another€via€the€CaspianÏSea,€the€Oxus€and€other€rivers,€and€inquired€about€divertingÏrivers€and€constructing€connecting€canals.€€Moreover,€Peter€alsoÏsent€Bering€[for€whom€the€straits€have€since€been€named]€to€seekÏa€passage€between€the€Russian€east€and€the€Americas.€As€hisÏambassador€to€Persia,€Artemy€Volynsky,€later€recalled€"accordingÏto€His€Majesty's€designs,€his€concern€was€not€for€Persia€alone.ÏFor,€if€matters€had€succeeded€for€us€in€Persia€and€his€exaltedÏlife€had€continued,€of€course€he€would€have€attempted€to€reachÏIndia,€and€he€nurtured€intentions€even€to€the€Chinese€state,Ïwhich€I€was€honored€from€his€Imperial€Majesty€....to€hear€myself"Ï(in€Ansiminov€1993:€263).€So€the€received€Eurocentric,€"emphasisÏon€Baltic€commerce€tends€to€obscure€the€development€of€MuscoviteÏtrade€with€the€east....[in€which]€Turkey,€Persia,€the€centralÏAsian€khanates,€and€China€played€important€roles€as€well,"€not€toÏmention€Peter's€interest€to€benefit€from€the€flourishing€IndiaÏtrade€(Oliva€1969:€129).€ÌÌBurton€(1993)€also€surveys€òòBukharan€Trade€1559„1718óó,€whichÏhowever€includes€trade€also€by€non„Bukharans.€His€maps€and€textÏrecord€continuing€trade€routes€and€substantial€trade€„€andÏtherefore€division€of€labor€„€of€commodities,€far€too€many€toÏlist€here,€of€sumptuary€as€well€as€daily€use.€ParticularlyÏnoteworthy€however€are€slaves€from€all€over€[including€GermanyÏand€Eastern€Europe,€but€especially€"non„Christian"€ones€from€theÏwest€and€"non„Muslim"€Hindu€ones€from€the€south];€horses€andÏother€livestock€as€well€as€hides,€skins,€and€furs;€fibres€andÏtextiles€of€all€fibres€and€sorts;€indigo€and€other€dyes;€€metalsÏand€metal€wares€and€especially€small€arms;€porcelain€and€otherÏceramics;€food€of€all€sorts€including€grains,€sugar,€fruits€andÏespecially€rhubarb;€medicines;€tea€and€tobacco;€precious€stones;,Ïand€of€course€precious€metals€and€coins.€The€trade€routesÏconnected€Central€Asian€emporia€such€as€Khiva,€Bukhara,€Balkh,ÏSmarkand,€Kabul€and€many€others€northward,€westward,€southward,Ïand€eastward.€Northward€they€went€via€Astrakhan€and€Orenburg€toÏMoscow€and€onwards€from€there€to€Eastern€and€Western€Europe.ÏWestward,€they€went€to€Persia,€the€Levant€and€Anatolia€and/or€viaÏthe€Black€Sea€route€to€Istanbul€and€the€Mediterranean.€Southward,Ïthey€went€into€India.€Eastward,€they€went€along€the€old€"SilkÏRoad"€to€China€and€northeastward€to€Siberia€and€through€the€sameÏalso€to€China.ÌÌIn€short,€all€dismissal€of€Inner€and€Central€Asia€from€earlyÏmodern€and€still€continuing€world€history€is€premature€„€orÏrather€a€belated€consequence€of€latterday€Eurocentrism.€BurtonÏ(1993:84)€concludes,€"throughout€the€period€reviewed€[1559„1718ÏCentral€Asians]€continued€to€ply€their€trade,€regardless€ofÏdangers€and€difficulties.€They€carried€an€enormous€variety€ofÏgoods,and€were€always€able€to€adjust€to€changing€circumstances.ÏThey€continued€to€trade€with€Muscovy€and€Siberia€even€after€theÏTsars€[imposed€impediments]."Ì€ÌIn€conclusion,€Asia€continued€to€predominate€in€the€world€economyÏright€through€the€eighteenth€century€until€at€least€1800.€WithinÏAsia,€Inner€and€Central€Asia€also€continued€to€play€an€importantÏworld€economic€and€political€role€in€the€world€historicalÏprocess,€which€had€for€millennia€already€been€subject€to€€òòTheÏCentrality€of€Central€Asiaóó€(Frank€1992).€Why€else€would€theÏBritish€and€Russian€Empires€have€engaged€themselves€in€"The€GreatÏGame"€of€competition€over€Central€Asia€still€even€in€theÏnineteenth€century?€Why€still€in€the€twentieth€century€did€€LeninÏand€Stalin€devote€so€much€attention€to€Central€Asia?€What€renewedÏor€continued€"Great€Game"€will€play€itself€out€there€over€oil€andÏother€resources€in€the€twenty„first€century€among€Russians,ÏTurks,€Persians,€Indians,€Chinese€and€above€all€the€[still]ÏCentral€Asians€themselves?€ÌÌÌÌÌREFERENCES€CITEDÌÌAbu„Lughod,€Janet€1989.€€òòBefore€European€Hegemony.€The€World€¼à0..àSystem€A.D.€1250„1350óó.€New€York:€Oxford€University€Press.ÌÌAdshead,€S.A.M.€1988.€òòChina€in€World€Historyóó.€London:Macmillan€¼à0..àPress.€ÌÌ„„„„„„„€1993.€òòCentral€Asia€in€World€Historyóó.€London:MacmillanÌÌAnisimov,€Evegenii€V.€1993.€òòThe€Reforms€of€Peter€the€Great.€¼à0..àProsperity€through€Coercion€in€Russia.óó€Armonk€NY:ÏM.E.Sharpe.ÌÌArasaratnam,€Sinnappah€1986.€òòMerchants,€companies€and€theÏà0..àCommerce€of€the€Coromandel€Coast€16501740.óó€Delhi:€OxfordÏUniversity€Press.€ÌÌArrighi,€Giovanni,€Takeshi€Hamashita€and€Mark€Selden€1996.€"The€¼à0..àRise€of€East€Asia€in€World€Historical€Perspective,"€€PaperÏpresented€at€the€Planning€Workshop,€Fernand€Braudel€Center,ÏSUNY€Binghamton€Dec€6„7.ÌÌòòóóAttman,€Artur€1981.€òòThe€Bullion€Flow€between€Europe€and€the€€EastÏà0..à1000„1750óó.€Goteborg:€Kungl.€Vetenskaps„€och€Vitterhets„¼Samhallet.ÌÌòòóóBernal,€Martin€1987.€òòBlack€Athena.€óóòòThe€Afroasiatic€Roots€of€¼à0..àClassical€Civilization.óó€New€Brunswick,€Rutgers€UniversityÏPress.ÌÌBlaut,€J.M.€òòThe€Colonizer's€Model€of€the€World:€Geographical€¼à0..àDiffusionsim€and€Eurocentric€Historyó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