’WPCŒ ąR’…› ·g©·ł©~¹ÅA)„ą)ĢlGL`¢  \¦u1Š±­4³­tZ1įč“ŖIRK>ģīŪ?²Eš@}æalXĢĘ»}ŃsÜ$#Īm² {é°ÅL²`Dü7ė»G`FŽbjKXdī$””adĶ1’/®m+‡·¾~Rų_cĪ”Yó<•ż‡Ż‹R@fLŹō Ņõś˜#±”\“¾±)Ķ-Ć9Ü0JĮ„īŠs ŻöėƒaÄ“·äÖ?3|&øźlmģW!fvK-gśŠēėż"@ī9Ÿ"ZĶkĢĪµ0ŻžGīThOB±·x‰å ’Ī Ūõ‚Įj£ Ć:ŁuöēŚyDKŅć'ÜXgŸś>fyćnõŒ ÷J J”æ/$×m`oÆÕŚ¾‹¢„<£‘’;ōø’¬/ę9'/Ź)įj.…$_# ¤6ćYŽ č, N8£¦z+°‘WßtsØe¢¼õ¤÷i7ÜĮŒ?¼Ė _čŅYr†¶ś[©Ż±L>#ēOĄŹØc} Å¢Æ קČdeśī ö} į‹p RAhĮÕ÷»f „kb6µÕŁ^Ļ‹ uŖšf‰J ¼ö­½‚ž,&ŸŽÖƓĮ²ƒ“U:Än­ž %«± 0£Į#Įd(%NM^ Ow[4_s mu<ž6X9`("Courier 10cpi«<ž6X9`("Courier 10cpiXĀxž6X@ɓ8Ē;X@X|x ({$””Ń  ŃÓ  ÓŃX°ŃŃX°ŃŃ8€VbXXdŌXXdģ8ŃŅ°Ņ˜HP DeskJet 600 (Monochrome)Č°,,,,Č°0!Ź#6+ ˜* ¬ĶĆ+’U‹’ĄĄĄŻ ƒ!ŻŃ  ŃÓ  ÓŃX°ŃŃX°ŃŃ8€VbXXdŌXXdģ8ŃŅ°ŅŻ  ŻŌ_ŌŃ  ŃŃTRY,3Ų'Xą3Ų' Letter 3Ų' Letter’3Ų'TŃņņEditorial€Note:€óóŠ X ŠThis€is€a€38€pp€Ō_ŌabbridgedŌ_Ō€version€the€48€pp€original.€Half€ofŠ ,Ō Šthe€sections€in€the€main€part€of€the€article/chapter€have€beenŠ Ø Šseverely€cut€and€are€[provisionally]€represented€here€only€byŠ Ō| Štheir€respective€introductory€paragraphs€[to€give€anŠ ØP Šindication€of€their€topics€and€to€maintain€the€originalŠ |$ Šnumbering€and€sequence€of€the€sections].€These€cut€sectionsŠ Pų Šare€on€2.€ecology,€4.€challenges€and€responses,€5.Š $Ģ Štechnological€change,€7.€gender€relations,€8.€ethnicity,€andŠ ų  Š9.€religion.€These€and€other€lesser€cuts€are€indicated€byŠ Ģ t  Š[....].€However,€in€another€revision,€these€topics€could€stillŠ   H  Šbe€replaced€or€edited€out,€whichever€may€be€appropriate.€OtherŠ t   Šcuts€may€also€be€possible.Š H š  ŠĢĢ€€€€€€€€€ą0 Č ą€€THE€CENTRALITY€OF€CENTRAL€ASIAŠÄl Č (#Č (# ŠĢą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąbyŠlŠ(#Š(# ŠĢą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ą€€Andre€€Gunder€€FrankŠ¼ (# (# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąŠ  (# (# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ą€€H.€Ō_ŌBosmansstraatŌ_Ō€€57€€€€€€ą00 (# (#ąŠ¼d0(#0(# Šą0 p ą€€€€€€€€€€1077€Ō_ŌXGŌ_Ō€Amsterdam,€HollandŠ8p(#p(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ą€€€€€TEL€(home)€31„20„€664€6607Šd Č (#Č (# Š€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€FAX€(office)€31„20„203€226Š 8ą ŠĢą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąCentral€Asia€is€of€fundamental€importanceŠ ąˆ Šfor€understanding€Eurasian€History....Š“\x(#x(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąIt€is€the€missing€link€in€World€HistoryŠˆ0x(#x(# Š€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€Christopher€Ō_ŌBeckwithŌ_ŌŠ \ Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ą€€€€€ņņThe€Tibetan€Empire€in€Central€AsiaóóŠ0Ųx(#x(# ŠĢĢą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąThe€Central€Asian€steppes...provide€anŠ ¬T! Šoverland€channel€of€communication€amongŠ €(" Šthe€centers€of€civilization€strung€out€inŠ Tü# ŠEurasia's€periphery....Thus€the€history€ofŠ ( Š$ ŠEurasia€was€to€a€great€extent€molded€byŠ ü ¤% Šthis€interactionŠŠ!x&x(#x(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąL.S.€Ō_ŌStavarianosŌ_ŌŠ¤"L 'Š(#Š(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąņņThe€World€to€1500:€A€Global€HistoryóóŠx# !(Š(#Š(# ŠĢĢą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąAn€examination€of€the€history€of€theŠ ō%œ#+ ŠCentral€Asian€steppe€empires...shows€thatŠ Č&p$, Šit€is€an€integral€and€important€part€ofŠ œ'D%- Šworld€history...[which]€exerted€a€majorŠ p(&. Šinfluence€on€the€historical€development€ofŠ D)ģ&/ Šthe€sedentary€statesŠ*Ą'0x(#x(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąLuc€Ō_ŌKwantenŌ_ŌŠģ*”(1Š(#Š(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąņņImperial€NomadsóóŠĄ+h)2Š(#Š(# ŠĢą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąThe€main€obstacle€to€creating€a€coherentŠ h-+4 ŠInner€Asian€history€has€always€been€theŠ <.ä+5 ŠŌ_Ōlack€of€an€appropriate€analyticalŠ X Šframework€which€made€sense€of€events€thereŠ ,Ō Šą0Šx(#x(#ąŠ Š(#Š(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąThomas€BarfieldŠŌ|Š(#Š(# Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąą0 Č (#Č (#ąą0x (# (#ąą0Šx(#x(#ąņņThe€Perilous€FrontieróóŠØPŠ(#Š(# ŠĢņņIntroductory€Scope€and€MethodóóŠ Pų ŠĢThis€paper€poses€some€questions€about€how€Central€Asia€fitsŠ ų  Šinto€world€history.€The€questions€arise€from€my€attempt€toŠ Ģ t  Šstudy€world€history€as€a€world€ņņsystemóó€(Frank€1990€a,b,c,€1991,Š   H  ŠGills€and€Frank€1990a,b).€From€this€perspective,€as€one€non„Š t   Šspecialist€addressing€other€non„specialists€of€Central€Asia,Š H š  Šthe€region€appears€as€a€sort€of€black€hole€in€the€middle€ofŠ  Ä  Šthe€world.€Little€is€known€or€said€about€it€by€those€who€focusŠ š ˜  Šon€the€geographically€outlying€civilizations€of€China,€India,Š Äl  ŠPersia,€Islam,€and€Europe€including€Russia.€€Even€worldŠ ˜@  Šhistorians€only€see€some€migrants€or€invaders€who€periodicallyŠ l Šemerge€from€Central€Asia€to€impinge€on€these€civilizations€andŠ @č Šthe€world€history€ņņtheyóó€make€(cf.€William€McNeill€l964€and€myŠ ¼ Šcritique€in€Frank€1990a).€Historians€of€art€and€religion€viewŠ č ŠCentral€Asia€as€a€sort€of€dark€space€through€which€these€worldŠ ¼d Šcultural€achievements€moved€from€one€civilization€to€another.Š 8 ŠAt€best,€they€see€Central€Asia€itself€as€a€dark€tabula€rasa€onŠ d  Šwhich€itinerant€monks,€mullahs€and€artists€from€theseŠ 8ą Šcivilized€areas€left€their€marks.€Now€their€remains€can€beŠ  “ Šadmired€in€1000€Buddha€caves€and€mosques€spread€throughŠ ąˆ ŠCentral€Asia.€Or€they€have€been€deposited€in€museums€spreadŠ “\ Šthrough€the€cultural€capitals€of€the€West€and€Japan€afterŠ ˆ0 Štheir€"discoverers"€unearthed€them,€crated€them€up,€and€cartedŠ \ Šthem€away.€Š 0Ų ŠĢYet€Central€Asia€is€also€a€black€hole€in€the€astronomicalŠ Ų€  Šsense:€It€is€hugely€dark€or€darkly€huge.€Central€Asia€is€alsoŠ ¬T! Šcentral€to€the€civilizations€of€the€outlying€peoples,€whoseŠ €(" Šlife€space€is€sucked€into€the€black€hole€in€the€center.€It€isŠ Tü# Šnot€clear€where€civilized€peoples€and€spaces€end,€and€whereŠ ( Š$ Šthey€interpenetrate€with€those€of€Central€Asia.€€None€of€theŠ ü ¤% Šcivilizations€are€pristine.€All€of€them€were€formed€and€evenŠ Š!x& Šdefined€through€interaction€with€Central€Asia.€Moreover,Š ¤"L ' ŠCentral€Asia€is€where€all€the€outlying€peoples€and€theirŠ x# !( Šcivilizations€connected€and€interacted€with€each€other.Š L$ō!) ŠIndeed,€for€millennia€the€Pulse€of€Asia€(Huntington€1907)Š  %Č"* Šprobably€came€from€its€Central€Asian€heartbeat.€Central€AsiaŠ ō%œ#+ Šis€truly€the€"missing"€link€in€Eurasian€and€world€history.€Š Č&p$, ŠĢCentral€Asia€is€also€central€to€any€attempt€at€systematic€orŠ p(&. Šsystemic€analysis€of€the€history€of€the€world€ņņsystemóó.€€CentralŠ D)ģ&/ ŠAsia€is€a€black€hole€that€must€attract€the€attention€and€evenŠ *Ą'0 Šthe€enthusiasm€of€any€analyst€of€world€system€history.€YetŠ ģ*”(1 ŠCentral€Asia€is€perhaps€both€the€most€important€and€the€mostŠ Ą+h)2 Šneglected€part€of€the€world€and€its€history.€Among€the€reasonsŠ ”,<*3 Šfor€this€neglect€are€the€following:€History€is€mostly€writtenŠ h-+4 Šby€the€victors€for€their€own€purposes,€especially€toŠ <.ä+5 Šlegitimize€their€victory.€While€Central€Asia€was€home€to€manyŠ X Švictors€for€a€long€time,€they€either€wrote€or€left€fewŠ ,Ō Šhistories€of€their€accomplishments.€Then,€since€the€XVŠ Ø Šcentury,€Central€Asian€peoples€have€been€mostly€losers€in€twoŠ Ō| Šways.€They€have€lost€out€to€others€on€their€home€ground,€andŠ ØP Štheir€Central€Asian€home€lands€ceased€to€be€so€central€toŠ |$ Šworld€history.€Moreover,€these€two€losses€were€intimatelyŠ Pų Šrelated€to€each€other:€The€world€historical€center€of€gravityŠ $Ģ Šshifted€outward,€sea„ward,€and€Westward.€Š ų  ŠĢĢHistory€has€also€mostly€been€written€from€nationalŠ t   Šperspectives€about€"nation"€states€or€at€most€aboutŠ H š  Š"civilizations."€That€is€also€because€history€is€written€byŠ  Ä  Šthe€victors.€€Moreover,€national(ist)€or€not,€historicalŠ š ˜  Šwriting€or€written€history€has€been€overly€Eurocentric.€ThisŠ Äl  ŠEuro€(or€Western)€centrism€has€marked€and€(de)formed€not€onlyŠ ˜@  Šhistorical€writing€about€"the€West,"€but€also€about€"the€East"Š l Šand€the€"South."€Even€many€non„Western€historians€writingŠ @č Šabout€their€own€countries€and€cultures€have€been€infected€byŠ ¼ Šthe€virus€of€Eurocentrism.€It€blinds€people€to€Central€AsiaŠ č Šand€especially€to€anything€important€or€good€coming€out€of€it.Š ¼d ŠSino„centric,€Indian„centric,€Persian„centric,€Islamo„centricŠ 8 Šand€other€histories€also€omit€adequate€reference€to€CentralŠ d  ŠAsia€and€even€to€its€large€influence€on€their€own€histories.Š 8ą Š"Civilized"€peoples€write€their€own€histories€about€themselvesŠ  “ Šand€not€about€their€"barbarian"€neighbors,€whom€they€considerŠ ąˆ Šbeyond€the€pale.€However,€Beckwith€(1987,€1990)€arguesŠ “\ Špowerfully€and€I€have€also€suggested€(Frank€l990a)€that€it€isŠ ˆ0 Šhigh€time€to€stop€the€injurious€appellation€of€Central€AsianŠ \ Špeoples€as€"barbarians."€I€hope€this€essay€will€helpŠ 0Ų Šdemonstrate€the€same.€Š ¬ ŠĢFinally,€virtually€nobody€writes€ņņworldóó€history,€or€evenŠ ¬T! Šņņinteróónational€history.€Therefore,€the€millennial€centrality€ofŠ €(" ŠCentral€Asia€in€inter"national"€relations€and€in€worldŠ Tü# Šhistory,€not€to€mention€world€ņņsystemóó€history,€goes€virtuallyŠ ( Š$ Šunnoticed.€Only€specialists€in€this€or€that€ņņpartóó€of€CentralŠ ü ¤% ŠAsia€take€notice,€but€they€in€turn€go€largely€unnoticed€byŠ Š!x& Šothers.€Š ¤"L ' ŠMoreover,€political€circumstances€in€Soviet€and€ChineseŠ x# !( ŠCentral€Asia€and€Mongolia€virtually€closed€much€of€the€areaŠ L$ō!) Šoff€from€foreign€researchers€for€nearly€two€generations.€ForŠ  %Č"* Šthis€reason€also,€a€generational€gap€developed€among€studentsŠ ō%œ#+ Šof€Central€Asia€outside€the€area.€Fortunately,€a€newŠ Č&p$, Šgeneration€of€scholars,€journalists€and€publicists€is€growingŠ œ'D%- Šwith€renewed€interest€in€Central€Asia.€Dramatic€ethnicŠ p(&. Šmovements€and€political€developments€in€the€area€now€willŠ D)ģ&/ Šundoubtedly€attract€their€and€others€increasing€attention.Š *Ą'0 ŠHopefully,€the€same€events€will€not€again€close€off€access€toŠ ģ*”(1 Šthe€same.€Today,€Central€Asia€is€waiting€to€be€discovered€byŠ Ą+h)2 Šthe€outside€world.€So€is€yesteryear's€centrality€of€CentralŠ ”,<*3 ŠAsia€in€the€history€of€this€world€outside.Š h-+4 ŠŠ <.ä+5 ŠEven€if€my€purpose€were,€which€it€is€not,€to€focus€on€CentralŠ X ŠAsia€per€se,€I€believe€we€would€have€to€follow€but€also€goŠ ,Ō Šbeyond€€Thomas€Barfield€(l989:2,12).€He€writes€that€Š Ø ŠĢą0 p ąthe€main€obstacle€to€creating€a€coherent€Inner€AsianŠ ØP Šhistory€has€always€been€the€lack€of€an€appropriateŠ |$ Šanalytical€framework€which€made€sense€of€eventsŠ Pų Šthere....The€Mongolian€steppe,€north€China,€and€ManchuriaŠ $Ģ Šmust€be€analyzed€as€part€of€a€single€historical€system.Šų p(#p(# ŠĢI€suggest€we€would€have€to€go€beyond€that.€Whatever€theŠ   H  Šappropriate€framework€may€be,€it€would€have€to€encompass€farŠ t   Šmore€than€these€three€areas€or€even€all€of€Central€AsiaŠ H š  Šitself.€It€would€have€to€be€derived€also€from€the€study€of€theŠ  Ä  Šinterrelations€within€the€whole€Afro„Eurasian€ņņworldóó€system€ofŠ š ˜  Šwhich€Central€Asia€was€a€central€part.€However,€my€purpose€isŠ Äl  Šnot€to€€write€a€coherent€or€any€other€Inner€Asian€history.Š ˜@  ŠInstead,€my€intent€is€to€help€clarify€the€role€of€CentralŠ l ŠAsians€in€the€history€of€their€neighbors€beyond€Central€AsiaŠ @č Šand€thus€their€place€in€world€system€history€as€a€whole.Š ¼ ŠWhatever€the€purpose€however,€we€need€a€broader€systemic€scopeŠ č Šand€analysis€to€pose€more€suitable€questions.€I€will€pose€aŠ ¼d Šdozen€questions€and€some€alternative€or€tentative€answers,Š 8 Špropose€four€systemic€approaches,€and€offer€two€conclusions.Š d  ŠĢThe€dozen€questions€about€Central€Asia€in€world€history€relateŠ  “ Što€1.€the€definition€or€location€of€Central€Asia,€2.Š ąˆ Šecological€and€climactic€factors,€3.€migratory€movements,€4.Š “\ Šchallenges€to€and€responses€by€Central€Asia's€neighbors,€5.Š ˆ0 Štechnological€change,€6.€state€formation,€7.€gender€relations,Š \ Š8.€ethnogenesis€and€ethnicity,€9.€religion,€€10.€specialŠ 0Ų Šnexuses,€11.€ņņinteróónational€trade,€and€12.€inter"national"Š ¬ Špolitical€economic€relations€in€the€world€system.€All€of€theseŠ Ų€  Šquestions€have€special€contemporary€relevance€today,€and€theyŠ ¬T! Šare€also€selected€by€me€for€that€reason.€Of€course,€this€dozenŠ €(" Šis€not€intended€to€and€does€not€exhaust€the€long€list€of€otherŠ Tü# Šproblems,€which€could€and€often€are€studied€by€others€(such€asŠ ( Š$ Šart,€kinship,€language,€war,€etc.).€I€then€€proceed€toŠ ü ¤% Šconsider€four€systemic€structures€and€processes€derived€fromŠ Š!x& Šthe€study€of€the€contemporary€world€system,€which€may€beŠ ¤"L ' Šuseful€also€to€study€the€place€and€role€of€Central€Asia€inŠ x# !( Šworld€history:€the€process€of€accumulation,€core„peripheryŠ L$ō!) Šstructure,€hegemony„rivalry€alternation,€and€politicalŠ  %Č"* Šeconomic€cycles€in€all€of€the€above.€Š ō%œ#+ ŠĢWe€may€briefly€anticipate€two€derivative€conclusions.€OneŠ œ'D%- Šconclusion€is€that€it€is€high€time€to€abandon€the€historicalŠ p(&. Šand€still€popular€image€of€Central€Asia€as€the€home€of€nomadŠ D)ģ&/ Šbarbarians€or€barbarian€nomads.€Central€Asia€was€also€home€toŠ *Ą'0 Šmany€highly€civilized€and€urbanized€peoples.€€Yet€even€whenŠ ģ*”(1 Šmany€people€were€nomadic€pastoralists,€they€were€no€moreŠ Ą+h)2 Š"barbarian"€or€"savage"€than€many€of€their€sedentaryŠ ”,<*3 Š"civilized"€neighbors.€€Indeed,€the€use€of€the€very€termŠ h-+4 Š"barbarian"€€and€its€supposed€difference€from€"civilized"€isŠ <.ä+5 Šwithout€justification.€The€second€conclusion€concerns€pastoralŠ X Šnomadism.€€It€was€not€a€"stage"€from€hunting€and€gathering€toŠ ,Ō Šagriculture€and€urbanization.€On€the€contrary,€much€€nomadicŠ Ø Šand€highly€specialized€pastoralism€was€probably€the€adaptiveŠ Ō| Šreaction€to€ecological,€climactic€and€economic€exigencies€byŠ ØP Špreviously€settled€agricultural€peoples.€Even€the€BibleŠ |$ Šassigns€temporal€precedence€to€the€latter.€Moreover,€nomadicŠ Pų Špastoralism€and€settled€agriculture€have€long€been€bothŠ $Ģ Šcomplementary€and€alternative,€as€well€as€transitory€andŠ ų  Šsequentially€interchangeable,€forms€of€existence.€€It€obscuresŠ Ģ t  Šmore€than€it€clarifies€to€regard€nomadism€as€a€permanent€typeŠ   H  Šof€people€rather€than€as€a€transitory€form€of€socio„economicŠ t   Šorganization.€€It€is€mistaken€to€regard€"Central"€(or€"Inner")Š H š  ŠAsia€and€its€many€different€peoples€as€somehow€all€differentŠ  Ä  Šfrom€the€rest€of€the€world€then€and€now.€There€was€and€isŠ š ˜  Šunity€in€diversity,€and€Central€Asia€was€not€apart€from€butŠ Äl  Šrather€central€to€this€reality€of€human€history€and€existence.Š ˜@  ŠĢņņDefinitions,€Ecology,€Migrations€and€(Im)pulses€of€CentralŠ @č ŠAsiaóóŠ ¼ ŠĢņ ņ1.€Definitions€of€Central€Asia.ó ó€Where€and€what€ņņisóó€CentralŠ ¼d ŠAsia?€Or€Inner€Asia?€Are€they€the€same€or€different?€€DennisŠ œD ŠSinor€(1969:€5)€regards€them€as€"virtually€synonymous."Š p ŠReference€to€"Inner"€Asia€seems€to€be€a€more€American€usage.Š Dģ Š"Central"€Asia€is€more€used€in€Europe€„„€and€in€the€regionŠ Ą Šitself.€Thus,€Harvard€has€an€"Inner"€Asian€Center€andŠ ģ” ŠNewsletter,€and€London€has€"Central"€Asian€one.€However,€theyŠ Ąh Šseem€to€cover€the€same€area.€On€the€other€hand,€Dennis€SinorŠ ”< Š(l969,€1977),€the€American€authority€on€the€area,€uses€"InnerŠ h ŠAsia"€in€his€titles€but€prefers€"Central€Eurasia"€as€a€moreŠ <ä Šaccurate€and€self„explanatory,€albeit€more€awkward,Š ø Šdenomination.Š äŒ  ŠĢWhatever€the€name€of€the€area,€varying€definitions€andŠ Œ4" Šboundaries€have€been€offered€for€it€by€different€scholars€andŠ `# Špublicists.€Toynbee€(l934)€delimited€precise€latitudes€andŠ 4 Ü$ Šlongitudes€for€his€definition€of€Central€Asia.€€Yet€GavinŠ !°% ŠHambly€(1969:€xi)€begins€his€study€of€ņņCentral€Asiaóó€with€theŠ Ü!„& Šwarning€that€"as€a€geographical€expression€the€term€'CentralŠ °"X ' ŠAsia'€tends€to€elude€precise€definition."€Geographically,Š „#,!( ŠHambly€features€its€isolation€from€oceanic€influences,€whichŠ X$") Šreduce€precipitation€and€increase€aridity.€BoundingŠ ,%Ō"* ŠCentral/Inner€Asia€on€the€South,€he€finds€some€four€thousandŠ &Ø#+ Šmiles€(six€thousand€Km.)€of€mountain€ranges€between€China€andŠ Ō&|$, Šthe€Black€Sea.€However,€he€recognizes€that€historically€theŠ Ø'P%- ŠTibetan€and€Iranian€plateaus€south€of€the€mountains€have€beenŠ |($&. Šinextricably€linked€to€Central€Asia€to€the€North.€The€easternŠ P)ų&/ Šand€western€limits€of€Central€Asia€are€even€less€easilyŠ $*Ģ'0 Šdefined€along€the€Great€Walls€built€by€the€Chinese€and€theŠ ų* (1 ŠUkrainian„Romanian„Hungarian€plains.€To€the€North,€there€is€noŠ Ģ+t)2 Šidentifiable€boundary,€unless€it€is€where€the€tundra€becomesŠ  ,H*3 Švirtually€uninhabitable€in€the€Siberian€cold.€Thus,€one€set€ofŠ t-+4 Šmountain€ranges€running€from€south„west€to€north€east€helpsŠ H.š+5 Šdelimit€Inner€Asia€from€the€centers€of€civilization€to€theŠ X ŠSouth€and€East.€Another€lower€and€more€or€less€parallel€rangeŠ ,Ō Šdivides€the€arid€desert€belt€„€punctuated€by€a€long€chain€ofŠ Ø Šoases€„€between€these€ranges€from€the€steppe€and€tundraŠ Ō| Šgrasslands€to€the€north.Š ØP ŠĢDennis€Sinor€(1969)€prefers€more€socio„culturally€definedŠ Pų Šboundaries.€He€suggests€that€Š $Ģ ŠĢą0 p ąthe€definition€that€can€be€given€of€Central€Eurasia€inŠ Ģ t  Šspace€is€negative.€It€is€that€part€of€the€continent€ofŠ   H  ŠEurasia€that€lies€beyond€the€borders€of€the€greatŠ t   Šsedentary€civilizations.€This€definition€implies€that€theŠ H š  Šfrontier€is€unstable...Essentially€it€is€a€culturalŠ  Ä  Šbarrier€that€exists€in€the€heart€of€man€(Sinor€1969:2,Š š ˜  Šalso€ibn€l977:95).ŠÄl p(#p(# ŠĢSinor€(l977)€also€evokes€the€analogy€of€a€volcano.Š l ŠOccasionally,€the€volcano€erupts€and€its€molten€core€of€magnaŠ @č Šoverflows€into€the€outlying€sedentary€civilizations,€which€tryŠ ¼ Što€contain€it.€Later,€however,€the€molten€lava€hardens,€isŠ č Šassimilated€into€the€surrounding€crust€and€then€helps€toŠ ¼d Šcontain€new€eruptions€and€the€forces€that€propel€them.€Š 8 ŠTherefore€in€the€view€of€Sinor€also,€the€remaining€"center"€ofŠ d  Š"inner"€Asia€is€tendentially€shrinking.Š 8ą ŠĢAnatoli€Khazanov€(1979),€from€the€Soviet€Union€and€now€in€theŠ ąˆ ŠUnited€States,€is€more€precise€and€further€distinguishesŠ “\ ŠMiddle€Asia€from€Inner€(Central)€Asia.€He€limits€the€latter€toŠ ˆ0 ŠKashgaria,€Jungaria,€Mongolia€and€Tibet.€Khazanov€denominatesŠ \ Šthe€region€between€the€Caspian€and€Aral€Seas€in€the€west€andŠ 0Ų Šnorth€and€bounded€by€the€Hindu€Kush€and€the€Pamir€mountains€inŠ ¬ Šthe€south€and€east€as€Middle€Asia.€Khazanov€also€distinguishesŠ Ų€  Šbetween€the€now€Arabic€Near€East€and€the€Middle€East,€where€heŠ ¬T! Šplaces€Turkey,€Iran,€and€Afghanistan.€Yet€he€recognizes€thatŠ €(" Šmuch€of€the€latter€have€historically€been€very€much€part€ofŠ Tü# ŠMiddle,€Central€or€Inner€Asia.€Some€authors€argue€that€socio„Š ( Š$ Špolitically€speaking,€Manchuria€was€historically€also€part€ofŠ ü ¤% ŠCentral/Inner€Asia.€But€so€were€much€of€Siberia€and€SouthernŠ Š!x& ŠRussia,€the€Ukraine€and€other€parts€of€Eastern€Europe.€Š ¤"L ' ŠĢThe€people€of€Central€Asia€themselves€do€not€call€themselvesŠ L$ō!) Š"Central€Asians."€Rather,€they€tend€to€identify€with€(andŠ  %Č"* Šthemselves€as)€this€ethnicity€or€that.€However,€the€sameŠ ō%œ#+ Šethnic€denomination€has€served€and€been€applied€to€manyŠ Č&p$, Šdifferent€€peoples€at€different€times.€Over€the€centuries,€theŠ œ'D%- Š"same"€people€also€have€gone€through€various€different€ethnicŠ p(&. Šnames€before€adopting€their€present€name€and€identity€onlyŠ D)ģ&/ Švery€recently,€as€€Gladney€(l990)€shows€about€the€Uighurs€inŠ *Ą'0 ŠChina€for€instance.Š ģ*”(1 ŠĢIn€the€meantime€however,€the€"Inner€Asian€Frontiers"€of€China,Š ”,<*3 Šas€Lattimore€called€them,€move€back€and€forth.€€So€do,€or€soonŠ h-+4 Šagain€may,€the€boundaries€of€Soviet€"Central"€Asia.€TheŠ <.ä+5 ŠChinese€call€their€Central€Asian€region€a€part€of€WesternŠ X ŠChina.€They€expressly€do€ņņnotóó€like€it€to€be€called€"EasternŠ ,Ō ŠTurkestan."€The€boundary€now€threatens€to€shift€again€in€theŠ Ø Šnear€future.€For€people€in€Tibet€and€the€Sinkiang€AutonomousŠ Ō| ŠUighur€Region,€and€their€supporters€abroad,€seek€to€reverseŠ ØP ŠChinese€administration€and€sovereignty,€as€even€Bejing€ReviewŠ |$ Šrecognizes€in€its€Vol.€33,€No.34,€of€August€20„26,€l990.€€Š Pų ŠĢTo€conclude,€perhaps€we€should€return€to€Herodotus.€He€alreadyŠ ų  Šasked€why€we€should€distinguish€between€Europe€and€Asia€(andŠ Ģ t  Šindeed,€Africa),€when€geographically€and€socially,€that€isŠ   H  Šhistorically,€speaking€there€is€only€one€continent€of€EurasiaŠ t   Š(or€Afro/Eurasia).€So€where€does€its€center€begin€and€end?€HowŠ H š  Šmuch€of€present€day€China,€Russia,€India,€Pakistan,€Iran,€orŠ  Ä  Ševen€European€Hungary,€etc.€were€effectively€working€parts€ofŠ š ˜  ŠCentral€Asia€during€what€times€of€their€history?€Speaking€ofŠ Äl  ŠEurope,€what€about€the€Magyars,€Bulgars,€Turks€and€others€whoŠ ˜@  Šmigrated€as€recently€as€in€medieval€times;€or€Dorians,Š l ŠHittites,€and€many€other€peoples€€who€populated€Greece€and€theŠ @č ŠLevant€in€classical€and€ancient€times?€Indeed€Aryans€went€toŠ ¼ ŠIndia€and€Indo€"Europeans"€and€their€languages€came€to€Europe?Š č ŠYet€all€originated€in€"Central"€Asia.€So€where€and€when€doesŠ ¼d ŠCentral€Asia€begin€and€end?€€Climactic€and€ecological€featuresŠ 8 Šand€differences€also€have€some€bearing.Š d  ŠĢņ ņ2.€Ecology€and€Climateó ó.€What€effects€did€ecology€and€climacticŠ  “ Šchange€have€on€human€settlement€and€migration€in€Central€Asia,Š ģ” Šon€its€boundaries€if€any,€and€thereby€also€in€neighboringŠ Ąh Šareas?€€And€vice€versa,€how€did€human€habitation€and€use€ofŠ ”< Šthe€environment€maintain€or€degrade€it?€€More€than€otherŠ h Šregions€in€the€world,€Central€Asia€is€marked€by€shiftingŠ <ä Štundra€steppes€and€deserts€as€well€as€high€mountain€rangesŠ ø Šwhose€snow€water€run€off€permits€habitation,€also€in€desertŠ äŒ  Šoases.€Therefore€also€more€than€elsewhere,€habitation€was€andŠ ø`! Šstill€is€often€at€a€margin€of€subsistence,€which€is€sensitive€Š Œ4" Što€minor€changes€in€delicate€ecological€balances.€€Even€smallŠ `# Šclimactic€and€ecological€changes€can€have€large€humanŠ 4 Ü$ Šconsequences€„„€and€vice€versa.€Š !°% Š[....]Š Ü!„& ŠĢņ ņ3.€Migrations.ó ó€When€and€what€were€the€major€migratoryŠ „#,!( Šmovements€out€of€Central€Asia?€What€were€their€causes€andŠ d$ ") Šconsequences€there€and€elsewhere?€It€is€commonplace€to€observeŠ 8%ą"* Šthat€peoples€from€Central€Asia€crossed€the€(then€land€bridge?)Š  &“#+ Šof€the€Bering€Straights€to€settle€the€Americas.€IncreasingŠ ą&ˆ$, Ševidence€also€points€to€eastward€maritime€migrations€to€theŠ “'\%- ŠNew€World€from€South€East€Asia€and€the€Islands€across€both€theŠ ˆ(0&. ŠSouth€and€the€Central€Pacific.€However,€even€these€people€ofŠ \)'/ ŠIndian€and€Malay€origin€„€who€also€peopled€Madagascar€„€couldŠ 0*Ų'0 Šalso€have€had€some€origins€in€or€impulses€emerging€fromŠ +¬(1 ŠCentral€Asia.Š Ų+€)2 ŠĢCentral€Asian€peoples€repeatedly€emerged€and€migrated€intoŠ €-(+4 Šoutlying€areas.€From€a€European€perspective,€Marija€GimbutasŠ T.ü+5 Šrecords€radiocarbon€evidence€of€three€major€westward€thrustsŠ X Šof€migratory€waves€by€steppe€pastoralists€in€4300„4200€BC,Š ,Ō Š3400„3200€BC€and€3000„2800€BC€(cited€in€Eisler€l987:44).€ForŠ Ø Šmore€recent€periods,€William€McNeill€(l964),€Gavin€HamblyŠ Ō| Š(l965),€E.D.€Phillips€(1965)€in€his€ņņThe€Royal€Hordesóó,€andŠ ØP Šother€secondary€sources€have€also€observed€recurrent€waves€ofŠ |$ Šmigration€emerging€from€Central€Asia€into€all€directions.Š Pų ŠHowever,€the€predominant€direction€was€westward;€perhaps,€asŠ $Ģ ŠKhazanov€(l979:173)€suggests€because€that€is€where€the€moreŠ ų  Šfertile€and€richer€regions€were.€Each€of€these€waves€was€alsoŠ Ģ t  Šabout€200€years€long,€and€they€ocurred€in€intervals€of€aboutŠ   H  Š500€years.€Huntington€(l9107,€1915)€attributed€these€recurrentŠ t   Šmigrations€to€a€640€year€cycle€of€climactic€change€in€CentralŠ H š  ŠAsia.€Others€dispute€the€same.€Gills€and€Frank€(l99b)€suggestŠ  Ä  Šthe€existence€of€long€cycles€of€approximately€200€yearŠ š ˜  Šupswings€and€200€year€downswings€in€economic€growth€andŠ Äl  Šhegemonial€expansion,€which€we€have€tried€to€identify€sinceŠ ˜@  Š1700€BC.€Š l ŠĢWhatever€the€reasons€for€the€migrations,€perhaps€by€1900€BCŠ ¼ Šbut€certainly€between€1700€and€1500€BC,€Hittites€and€KassitesŠ č Šmoved€to€Asia€Minor;€Aryans€moved€into€India€and€Iran;€and€theŠ ¼d ŠHurrians€and€Hyksos€went€to€the€Levant€and€Egypt.€These€andŠ 8 Šother€migrations€out€of€Central€Asia€affected€not€only€each€ofŠ d  Šthe€receiving€regions€and€peoples.€The€consequences€alsoŠ 8ą Šaltered€the€relations€among€these€outlying€peoples€and€regionsŠ  “ Šthemselves,€as€for€instance€those€between€Mesopotamia€andŠ ąˆ ŠEgypt.€Š “\ ŠĢAnother€major€migratory€movement€occurred€around€1000€BC,€fromŠ \ Šperhaps€1200€to€900€BC.€Indo„Europeans€moved€eastward€andŠ 0Ų Šperhaps€became€ancestors€of€the€later€Tocharians€of€the€TarimŠ ¬ ŠBasin€in€Xinjiang.€Among€others,€Phoenicians,€Arameans€andŠ Ų€  ŠDorians€moved€into€the€Levant€and€Greece.€They€contributed€toŠ ¬T! Šdramatic€developments€in€Assyria,€including€Niniveh€andŠ €(" ŠBabylon,€and€later€in€Persia€and€Greece.Š Tü# ŠĢAround€a€half€millennium€before€the€birth€of€Christ,€theŠ ü ¤% Šmovement€of€the€Massagetae€drove€the€Scythians€westward,€andŠ Š!x& Šthey€in€turn€pushed€the€Cimmerians€west„€and€southward.€TheŠ ¤"L ' Šlatter€crossed€the€Caucasus€and€arrived€in€Asia€Minor€in€680„Š x# !( Š670€BC.€Later,€Herodotus€recorded€their€incursions€„€and€theirŠ L$ō!) Šsupposedly€exceptional€savagery€„€for€history.€They€wereŠ  %Č"* Šfollowed€by€the€Sarmatians.Š ō%œ#+ ŠĢĢAround€the€beginning€of€the€Christian€era,€migratory€movementsŠ p(&. Šemerging€from€Central€Asia€contributed€to€far€reachingŠ D)ģ&/ Šchanges.€On€China's€"Inner€Asian€Frontier"€the€Ch'in€and€HanŠ *Ą'0 Šrulers€fought€off€the€€Hsiung€Nu€in€Zungaria€across€the€TienŠ ģ*”(1 ŠShan€Mountains.€To€do€so,€the€Chinese€tried€to€enlist€the€aidŠ Ą+h)2 Šof€the€Yue€Chi€along€the€Kansu€(Haxi)€Corridor€and€Dunhuang.€Š ”,<*3 ŠHowever,€the€Hsiung€Nu€defeated€the€Yue€Chi,€who€migratedŠ h-+4 Šwestward.€€It€is€still€disputed€whether€the€former€became€theŠ <.ä+5 ŠHuns€who€later€invaded€Europe.€However,€the€latter€did€conquerŠ X Šthe€Saka€people€and/or€the€Bactrian€successors€of€AlexanderŠ ,Ō Šthe€Great.€Their€descendants€founded€the€Kushan€Empire,€whichŠ Ø Šruled€the€North€of€India.€Parthians€invaded€Persia€from€theŠ Ō| ŠNorth€to€conquer€the€Selucids€who€had€taken€over€there€fromŠ ØP ŠAlexander.Š |$ ŠĢAround€500€AD,€new€movements€of€peoples€from€Central€€AsiaŠ $Ģ Šspread€in€all€directions€and€had€domino€effects.€EphtalitesŠ ų  Šmoved€into€India,€Goths€and€Huns€into€Europe€(Attila€attackedŠ Ģ t  ŠRome€in€452).€Tang€China,€Western€and€Eastern€Byzantine€Rome,Š   H  ŠPersia,€and€the€later€spread€of€Islam€among€others€would€notŠ t   Šhave€become€what€they€did€without€the€impact€of€these€migrantsŠ H š  Šand€invaders€from€Central€Asia.€Before€1000€AD,€the€Turks,€whoŠ  Ä  Šoriginated€in€the€Altai€near€Mongolia,€moved€into€Anatolia,Š š ˜  Šwhich€became€Turkish€and€eventually€Turkey.€Perhaps€the€mostŠ Äl  Šmemorable€migratory€and€invasory€movement€was€that€of€theŠ ˜@  ŠMongols€under€Genghis€Khan€and€his€successors€to€Tamerlane€inŠ l Šthe€13th€and€14th€centuries.€The€world's€largest€empire€theyŠ @č Šcreated€was€only€shortlived.€But€its€consequences€were€veryŠ ¼ Šlong€lived€and€far€reaching€in€the€development€of€Ming€China,Š č ŠMoghul€India,€Safavid€Persia,€the€Ottoman€Empire,€and€perhapsŠ ¼d Ševen€through€its€effects€on€subsequent€European€developmentŠ 8 Šand€expansion.€Š d  ŠĢMigrations€in,€through€and€out€of€Central€Asia€must€still€beŠ  “ Šreviewed€as€both€cause€and€effect€of€the€long€termŠ ąˆ Ševolutionary€and€cyclical€history€of€the€Eurasian€ecumene€as€aŠ “\ Šwhole€„„€and€perhaps€as€an€expression€of€the€process€ofŠ ˆ0 Šaccumulation€in€the€whole€world€system,€which€we€will€invokeŠ \ Šat€the€end€of€this€essay.€However,€a€note€of€caution€aboutŠ 0Ų Šmigrations€should€perhaps€also€be€expressed.€Igor€DiakanoffŠ ¬ Š(1990)€suggests€that€not€all€supposed€mass€migrations€reallyŠ Ų€  Šocurred.€The€evident€diffusion€of€languages€through€Eurasia,Š ¬T! Šfor€instance,€need€not€have€ocurred€only€through€massiveŠ €(" Šmigrations€of€peoples€who€spoke€these€languages.€InsteadŠ Tü# Šaccording€to€Diakanoff,€many€languages€were€passed€on€from€oneŠ ( Š$ Špopulation€to€another€like€a€baton€in€a€relay.€That€heŠ ü ¤% Šsuggests,€was€the€case€with€the€spread€of€Turkic€languages,Š Š!x& Šmoreso€than€through€massive€westward€migration,€for€which€heŠ ¤"L ' Šfinds€little€genetic€and€other€evidence.€€Diakanoff€expressesŠ x# !( Šsimilar€reservations€about€the€diffusion€of€Indo„EuropeanŠ L$ō!) Šlanguages€through€earlier€migrations.€However,€if€Diakanoff'sŠ  %Č"* Šreservations€about€migrations€and€his€alternative€explanationsŠ ō%œ#+ Šin€terms€of€economic€and€political€contacts€are€well€taken,Š Č&p$, Šthe€thesis€of€systemic€linkages€across€Afro„Eurasia€would€beŠ œ'D%- Šsustained€even€moreso.€Š p(&. ŠĢņ ņ4.€Challengesó ó€ņ ņto€and€Responses€by€Civilizationó ó.€What€were€theŠ *Ą'0 Šchallenges€that€these€Central€Asian€incursions€posed€to€theirŠ ų* (1 Šneighbors,€and€how€did€the€latter€respond?€We€may€recall€thatŠ Ģ+t)2 ŠToynbee€(1934,€l946)€placed€great€emphasis€on€the€responses€ofŠ  ,H*3 Šcivilizations€to€the€challenges€they€encountered,€both€insideŠ t-+4 Šand€outside€themselves.€"Time€and€again€they€[peoples€fromŠ H.š+5 ŠCentral€Asia]€developed€military€powers€capable€to€change€theŠ X Šcourse€of€history€of€urban€civilizations"€(Azzaroli€1985:66).Š ,Ō ŠTherefore,€Stavarianos€suggestsŠ Ø ŠĢą0 p ąThe€ancient,€the€classical,€the€medieval€periods€of€pre„Š ØP Š1500€Eurasian€history€...€were€heralded€by€major€turningŠ |$ Špoints€primarily€attributable€to€these€nomadic€invasionsŠ Pų Š(Stavarianos€1970:6)Š$Ģp(#p(# Š[....]Š ų  ŠĢĢņņTechnology,€State€Formation,€Gender€Relations,€Ethnicity,€andŠ t   ŠReligion€in€Central€AsiaóóŠ H š  ŠĢThis€interaction€between€Central€Asians€and€civilized€peoplesŠ š ˜  Što€the€East,€South,€West€and€finally€also€to€the€North€of€theŠ Äl  Šheartland€of€Eurasia€took€multitudinous€forms€of€migration,Š ˜@  Šinvasion,€war,€alliances,€and€trade.€The€interaction€involvedŠ l Šthe€diffusion€of€technology,€artifacts,€social€institutions,Š @č Šculture€and€religion.€As€a€result,€political,€social€andŠ ¼ Šeconomic€organization€€also€underwent€farreachingŠ č Štransformations.€States€and€empires€developed,€decayed,€wereŠ ¼d Šoverthrown€or€incorporated€by€others.€€None€of€theseŠ 8 Šinfluences€would€have€been€possible€without€technologicalŠ d  Šdevelopments€or€adaptations€in€Central€Asia€itself,€which€wereŠ 8ą Šsufficient€to€generate€and€diffuse€these€social€consequencesŠ  “ Šamong€their€supposedly€more€"civilized"€and€advancedŠ ąˆ Šneighbors.Š “\ Š[.....]Š ˆ0 ŠĢņ ņ6.€State€formation.ó ó€What€was€the€role€of€Central€Asia€in€ņ ņó óstateŠ 0Ų Šformation€and€politicalņ ņ€ó óorganization,€also€in€outlyingŠ ø Šcivilizations€and€empires?€"The€origins€of€the€state"€is€theŠ š˜  Šsubject€of€a€longstanding€debate,€which€is€beyond€our€presentŠ Äl! Šscope.€The€formation€of€states€and€their€administration€hasŠ ˜@" Šalmost€universally€been€interpreted€as€a€function€of€theŠ l# Š"internal"€needs€of€"societies"€to€organize€their€economy,Š @ č$ Šsociety,€culture,€and€therefore€also€polity.€Š !¼% ŠĢHowever,€the€distinction€has€also€been€made€between€"primary"Š ¼"d ' Šstates€whose€origin€is€sought€within€its€own€"society"€andŠ #8!( Š"secondary"€states,€which€develop€at€least€in€part€in€responseŠ d$ ") Što€another€(primary)€one.€Under€the€title€"The€Flag€FollowsŠ 8%ą"* ŠTrade,"€Michael€Webb€(1975)€proposes€instead€the€termsŠ  &“#+ Š"intrasystemic"€for€the€probably€only€six€or€eight€primaryŠ ą&ˆ$, Šstate€areas€(including€Mesoamerica€and€Peru)€andŠ “'\%- Š"intersystemic"€states€for€the€many€formed€by€processesŠ ˆ(0&. Šinvolving€long€distance€contact.€In€his€"State€Origins:€AŠ \)'/ ŠReappraisal,"€Ronald€Cohen€(1978)€distinguishes€betweenŠ 0*Ų'0 Š(theories€of)€state€formation€based€on€"internal"€factors€andŠ +¬(1 Šthose€based€on€"inter„polity€relations."€Among€the€latter,Š Ų+€)2 Šinter„polity€long€distance€trade,€the€exaction€and/or€paymentŠ ¬,T*3 Šof€tribute,€and€warfare€take€pride€of€place€as€reasons€to€formŠ €-(+4 Ša€state€better€to€intervene€in€these€relations€betweenŠ T.ü+5 Š"societies."€€Cohen€and€others€also€note€that€not€necessarilyŠ X Šall€members€of€society,€but€only€the€interests€of€a€privilegedŠ ,Ō Šfew€may€be€enough€to€generate€the€concentration€andŠ Ø Šorganization€of€power€in€a€state€for€these€purposes.Š Ō| ŠĢIn€an€age€of€territorial€"nation"€states,€the€tendency€is€toŠ |$ Šidentify€a€particular€territory€with€its€own€nation€and€state,Š Pų Šas€though€they€naturally€go€together.€Actually,€it€is€curiousŠ $Ģ Šthat€this€should€be€so€when€as€I€am€writing,€the€Gulf€regionŠ ų  Šand€South€Asia€are€convulsed€by€issues€of€what€territory€is€inŠ Ģ t  Šwhose€state€(all€of€which€were€formed€and€their€boundariesŠ   H  Šdrawn€by€Western€colonialism).€Also€two€also€forty€year€oldŠ t   Špost€war€states€in€Europe€are€reuniting€a€single€"nation"€inŠ H š  Šboundaries€very€different€from€any€previous€ones.€PostŠ  Ä  Šcolonial€African€"national"€states€are€still€trying€to€formŠ š ˜  Štheir€"nations"€in€the€face€of€tribal€and€inter"national"Š Äl  Šdisputes.€In€Central€Asia€itself,€ethnic€disputes€andŠ ˜@  Šrivalries€are€(re)erupting€to€challenge€territorial€and€stateŠ l Šorganization€of€a€half,€one,€and€two€centuries€standing.Š @č ŠTherefore,€the€identity€of€state,€national,€and€territory€isŠ ¼ Šdoubtful€even€today.€They€were€not€identical€in€the€past,Š č Šleast€of€all€in€Central€Asia.Š ¼d Š[....]Š 8 ŠĢHistorically,€the€identification€of€state,€territory€andŠ 8ą Šnation€is€false.€In€Central€Asia,€it€is€easy€to€see€thatŠ  “ Šmatters€were€largely€otherwise.€State€power€was€organized€andŠ ąˆ Šreorganized€by€often€nomadic€peoples€on€the€basis€first€ofŠ “\ Štribal€allegiance;€then€of€political€alliances,€rivalries,€andŠ ˆ0 Šconquests;€and€only€lastly,€on€shifting€and€temporaryŠ \ Šterritorial€bases.€What€was€ņņtheóó€or€ņņthisóó€"society"?€€YetŠ 0Ų Šapparently€sedentary€states€or€those€of€€supposedly€sedentaryŠ ¬ Špeoples€and€societies€were€not€very€different.€Only€in€a€fewŠ Ų€  Šmajor€alluvial€plains€was€the€agricultural€base€relativelyŠ ¬T! Šterritorially€fixed.€These€were€around€the€Tigris/Euphrates,Š €(" ŠNile,€Indus,€Yellow€rivers€„€and€even€these€shifted€as€theŠ Tü# Šriver€bed€changed.€€Yet€even€in€these€€territories€ņņdifferentóóŠ ( Š$ Šstates€came€and€went.€Their€ethnic,€national,€cultural,€andŠ ü ¤% Šsocial€base€and€rulership€changed,€as€did€their€politicalŠ Š!x& Šcenters€from€one€capital€to€another,€and€their€administrativeŠ ¤"L ' Šterritorial€ranges.€€Nothing€was€politically€fixed.€Moreover,Š x# !( Šthe€comings€and€goings€of€Central€Asians€contributedŠ L$ō!) Šimportantly€to€this€flux€elsewhere.€Š  %Č"* ŠĢThroughout€Afro„Eurasia,€including€not€only€nomadic€CentralŠ Č&p$, ŠAsia,€state€and€imperial€political€power€was€formed€andŠ œ'D%- Šreformed€on€a€catch€as€catch€can€basis€with€only€temporaryŠ p(&. Šterritorial€and€very€little€national€bases.€€Even€"China"€withŠ D)ģ&/ Šits€millenarian€civilization€did€not€exist€as€such€(and€mayŠ *Ą'0 Šagain€change).€Dynasties€with€different€bases€and€territoriesŠ ģ*”(1 Šcame€and€went.€Over€half€of€the€time€during€the€past€three€orŠ Ą+h)2 Ševen€two€thousand€years,€these€dynasties€had€non€"Chinese"Š ”,<*3 Šorigins,€mostly€in€Manchuria€and€some€in€Central€Asia.€TheŠ h-+4 Š(non)€terretorially€and€Š <.ä+5 Šnationally€based€organization€of€state€and€imperial€politicalŠ X Špower€was€not€so€different€elsewhere€than€it€was€in€CentralŠ ,Ō ŠAsia.€Š Ø ŠSo,€was€state€power€organized€only€or€even€primarily€to€serveŠ Ō| Š"internal"€social€needs?€The€central€thesis€of€AnatoliŠ ØP ŠKhazanov's€(l979)€ņņNomads€and€the€Outside€Worldóó€is€that€"nomadsŠ |$ Šcould€never€exist€on€their€own€without€the€outside€world€andŠ Pų Šits€non„nomadic€societies"€and€that€"the€important€phenomenonŠ $Ģ Šof€nomadism€...€consists€in€its€indissoluble€and€necessaryŠ ų  Šconnection€with€the€outside€world"€(Khazanov€l979:€3).€TheŠ Ģ t  Šsame€relationship€extends€to€the€formation€of€the€state€amongŠ   H  Šthe€nomads„„€and€perhaps€among€their€sedentary€neighbors€also.€Š t   ŠKhazanov€(l979€Chapter€5€and€1981)€links€state€formation€amongŠ H š  Šnomads€mostly€but€not€always€with€external€expansion€at€theŠ  Ä  Šexpense€of€their€sedentary€neighbors.€He€distinguishes€betweenŠ š ˜  Šconquest€and€subjugation€of€sedentary€peoples,€from€whom€theŠ Äl  Šnomads€exact€tribute,€and€sedentarization€of€the€nomadsŠ ˜@  Šthemselves€on€their€neighbors'€territory.€In€either€case,Š l Šstate€formation€is€an€important€instrument€for€the€nomads.Š @č ŠSometimes€also,€a€nomad€state€may€be€formed€to€derive€tributeŠ ¼ Šfrom€a€sedentary€one€to€which€it€offers€protection€from€otherŠ č Šnomads.Š ¼d ŠĢThomas€Barfield€(1989)€goes€another€step€further.€In€hisŠ d  Šanalysis€of€ņņThe€Perilous€Frontier:€Nomadic€Empires€and€Chinaóó,Š 8ą ŠBarfield€criticizes€€theŠ  “ Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ącommon€assumption€that€the€creation€of€a€nomadic€stateŠ “\ Šwas€the€result€of€internal€development.€Yet€historicallyŠ ˆ0 Šknown€nomadic€states€were€organized€on€a€level€ofŠ \ Šcomplexity€far€beyond€the€needs€of€simple€nomadicŠ 0Ų Špastoralism....€The€development€of€the€state€amongŠ ¬ Šnomadic€pastoralists,€therefore,€was€not€a€response€toŠ Ų€  Šinternal€needs;€rather€it€developed€when€they€were€forcedŠ ¬T! Što€deal€with€more€highly€organized€sedentary€stateŠ €(" Šsocieties€on€a€continual€basis.€Drawing€on€cases€fromŠ Tü# Šsouthwestern€Asia,€Irons€[l979]€came€to€the€sameŠ ( Š$ Šconclusion€and€reduced€it€to€a€hypothesis:€"AmongŠ ü ¤% Špastoral€nomadic€societies€hierarchical€politicalŠ Š!x& Šinstitutions€are€generated€only€by€external€relationsŠ ¤"L ' Šwith€state€societies€and€never€develop€purely€as€a€resultŠ x# !( Šof€internal€dynamics€of€such€societies"€(Barfield€1989:6„Š L$ō!) Š7).Š %Č"*p(#p(# ŠĢBarfield€devotes€much€of€his€book€to€confirming€thisŠ Č&p$, Šhypothesis€for€Eastern€Central€Asia.€He€extends€it€by€showingŠ œ'D%- ŠthatŠ p(&. Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąPowerful€nomadic€empires€rose€and€fell€in€tandem€withŠ *Ą'0 Šnative€dynasties€in€China.€The€Han€and€Hsiung„nu€empiresŠ ģ*”(1 Šappeared€within€a€decade€of€one€another,€while€the€empireŠ Ą+h)2 Šof€the€Turks€emerged€just€as€China€reunified€under€theŠ ”,<*3 ŠSui/Tang€dynasties€(ibid.€p.€9)Šh-+4p(#p(# ŠŠ <.ä+5 Šą0 p ąThe€unification€of€China€under€the€Ch'in/Han€dynastiesŠ X Šand€the€steppe€under€the€Hsiung„nu€after€centuries€ofŠ ,Ō Šanarchy€occurred€within€a€single€generation.€ThreeŠ Ø Šhundred€years€later,€dissolution€of€central€power€in€bothŠ Ō| ŠChina€and€the€steppe€also€took€place€within€a€generation.Š ØP ŠIt€was€no€accident€that€the€steppe€and€China€tended€to€beŠ |$ Šmirror€images€of€one€another.€Ultimately€the€stateŠ Pų Šorganization€of€the€steppe€needed€a€stable€China€toŠ $Ģ Šexploit.€The€Turkish€empires€and€the€T'ang€dynastyŠ ų  Šprovide€an€unusual€opportunity€to€test€this€hypothesisŠ Ģ t  Š(ibid.€p.€131).Š  H p(#p(# ŠĢSince€Barfield's€book€is€primarily€about€nomadic€empires,€heŠ H š  Štries€to€demonstrate€how€trade€relations€with€and€surplus€fromŠ  Ä  ŠChina€was€a,€if€not€the,€essential€input€into€nomadicŠ š ˜  Šsocieties.€The€acquisition€and€administration€of€this€surplusŠ Äl  Šfrom€the€outside€was€necessary€to€establish€and€maintainŠ ˜@  Šclaims€to€political€power€for€and€among€the€nomadic€rulersŠ l Šthemselves.€That€is,€much€nomadic€political€power€was€based€onŠ @č Šthe€ability€of€particular€tribal€rulers€to€guarantee€the€inputŠ ¼ Šof€surplus€derived€from€their€relations€with€the€Chinese.€ThisŠ č Šinput€was€especially€essential€for€the€organization€andŠ ¼d Šmaintenance€of€imperial€alliances€and€conquests€among€nomadicŠ 8 Štribes€themselves.€However€Di€Cosmo€(l990)€points€out,€andŠ d  ŠBarthold€(1956,€1962:€11„13)€seems€to€confirm,€that€class€andŠ 8ą Šintra„nomadic€power€struggles€preceded€(and€were€more€bloodyŠ  “ Šthan)€the€nomadic€winners'€incursions€into€neighboringŠ ąˆ Šsedentary€states.€Š “\ ŠĢHowever,€this€stable€relationship€with€a€stable€imperialŠ \ Šdynastic€power€in€China€was€so€important€for€the€nomad€rulersŠ 0Ų Šthat€the€Central€Asian€Uighur€state€helped€the€Tang€dynastyŠ ¬ Šdefend€itself€against€the€major€An€Lu„shan€rebellion€in€755.Š Ų€  Š(We€must€return€to€this€important€period€and€its€outcome,Š ¬T! Šincluding€the€decline€of€Tang€power,€in€another€contextŠ €(" Šbelow).€Thus,€€nomadic€and€Chinese€power€rose€and€fell€notŠ Tü# Šonly€in€temporal€tandem€but€also€in€structural€symbiosis.€Š ( Š$ ŠĢThis€part€of€Barfield's€analysis€suggests€at€least€threeŠ Š!x& Šimportant€further€questions€and€extensions€of€research€andŠ ¤"L ' Šanalysis.€A)€How€true€was€this€same€tandem€and€symbiosis€forŠ x# !( Šthe€formation€and€decline€of€major€states€elsewhere€in€CentralŠ L$ō!) ŠAsia?€Š  %Č"* ŠIrons€(l979)€already€suggested€that€the€same€was€true€for€theŠ ō%œ#+ Šformation€of€Central€Asian€states€in€their€relations€with€WestŠ Č&p$, ŠAsia.€This€requires€further€investigation,€also€for€SouthŠ œ'D%- ŠAsia.€Š p(&. ŠIndeed,€the€formation€and€expansion€of€these€states€may€alsoŠ D)ģ&/ Šhave€been€part€of€Eurasian€wide€economic€and€political€cycles,Š *Ą'0 Što€which€we€will€return€below.Š ģ*”(1 ŠĢB)€What€was€the€mix€of€"internal"€and€"external"€dynamic,Š ”,<*3 Šneeds€and€possibilities€in€the€ups€and€downs€of€the€manyŠ h-+4 Šsmaller€states€in€€Central€Asia?€€They€were€more€terretoriallyŠ <.ä+5 Šbased€on€oases€and€special€nodal€nexuses€and€crossroads€ofŠ X Šinterchange€with€€other€peoples.€We€will€also€return€to€themŠ ,Ō Šbelow€in€other€contexts.€Here,€it€is€enough€to€observe€thatŠ Ø Šthese€oases€and€other€nodal€regions€ņņand€statesóó€€were€vitallyŠ Ō| Šdependent€on€long€distance€trade€and€that€they€were€the€objectŠ ØP Šof€constant€rivalry€among€their€neighbors.€Therefore,€itŠ |$ Šstands€to€reason€that€€state€power€in€these€localities€came,Š Pų Šwas€organized€and€went€also€very€much€as€a€function€of€the€upsŠ $Ģ Šand€downs€of€their€relations€with€their€neighbors€near€and€farŠ ų  Š„„€and€as€part€of€Eurasian€political€economic€cycles.Š Ģ t  ŠĢC)€The€most€interesting€and€important€further€question€andŠ t   Špossible€reinterpretation€of€the€historical€evidence€is€theŠ H š  Šimplication€of€Barfield's€and€related€hypothesis€of€secondaryŠ  Ä  Šor€intersystemic€state€formation€for€civilizations€and€empiresŠ š ˜  Š"outside"€Central€Asia.€Was€the€formation,€organization,€andŠ Äl  Šdecline€of€states€in€the€outlying€areas€"internally"€orŠ ˜@  Š"externally"€shaped€and€determined?€€Central€Asian€states€roseŠ l Šand€declined€not€only€in€tandem€but€also€in€symbiosis€withŠ @č Šthose€of€the€"highly€organized€sedentary€state€societies"€(asŠ ¼ Šper€Barfield€above).€Therefore,€was€political€power€in€theseŠ č Š"more€civilized"€societies€also€organized€at€least€in€part€asŠ ¼d Ša€function€of€their€relations€with€those€of€Central€Asia€ņņandóóŠ 8 Šwith€each€other?€€The€old€adage€has€it€that€asking€the€rightŠ d  Šquestion€is€getting€more€than€half€of€the€right€answer.€ItŠ 8ą Šstands€to€reason€that€political€organization€in€theseŠ  “ Šsedentary€state€societies€was€a€function€of€their€"external"Š ąˆ Šrelations€as€well€as€of€their€"internal"€needs.€Indeed,€manyŠ “\ Šof€their€"internal"€needs€ņņwereóó€"external"€relations.€ThisŠ ˆ0 Šinternal/external€relation€was€particularly€pressing€for€andŠ \ Šon€the€state.€For€the€state€was€needed€to€organize€economic,Š 0Ų Špolitical€and€of€course€military€relations€and€rivalry€withŠ ¬ Šother€"societies"€near€and€far,€in€Central€Asia€or€not.€Š Ų€  ŠĢThe€demonstration€of€the€importance€of€"external"€factors€andŠ €(" Šof€relations€with€Central€Asia€in€the€"internal"€organizationŠ Tü# Šof€states€around€€Afro„Eurasia€(and€for€that€matter€elsewhere)Š ( Š$ Šis€beyond€our€scope€and€my€capacity.€€However,Š ü ¤% Š(re)investigating€€this€"external"€relationship€and€the€roleŠ Š!x& Šof€Central€Asia€in€the€formation,€maintenance,€and€decline€ofŠ ¤"L ' Šstate€and€other€political€power€elsewhere€is€a€major€task€ofŠ x# !( Šhistorical€research€and€(re)interpretation.€It€can€begin€withŠ L$ō!) Šthe€analysis€of€state€formation€in€the€alluvial€plains€ofŠ  %Č"* ŠMesopotamia,€the€Indus,€and€Egypt.€They€had€relations€withŠ ō%œ#+ Šeach€other€and€with€the€Levant,€Anatolia,€and€with€the€peoplesŠ Č&p$, Šof€Central€Asia.€Thus,€in€2350€BC,€Sargon€sent€militaryŠ œ'D%- Šexpeditions€into€the€highlands€of€Persia€and€Anatolia€toŠ p(&. Šsafeguard€the€supply€of€metals€and€other€products€essential€toŠ D)ģ&/ Šhis€people€and€his€own€rule€over€them.€Š *Ą'0 ŠĢThe€repeated€incursions€of€Central€Asian€peoples€outward€intoŠ Ą+h)2 Šall€directions€East,€South€and€West,€as€well€as€day€to€dayŠ ”,<*3 Šeconomic€and€political€relations€across€these€"Inner€AsianŠ h-+4 Šfrontiers"€obliged€all€outlying€sedentary€societies€to€adaptŠ <.ä+5 Štheir€political€organization€to€the€exigencies€of€theseŠ X Šrelations€with€Central€Asia.€For€instance,€the€Soviet€authorsŠ ,Ō ŠV.M.€Masson€and€V.I.€Sarianidi€(l972)€conclude€their€study€ofŠ Ø ŠņņCentral€Asia:€Turkmenia€before€the€Achaemenidsóó€with€aŠ Ō| Šreference€toŠ ØP ŠĢą0 p ąthe€complex€process€of€migration€of€peoples€belonging€toŠ Pų Šthe€Indo„Iranian€language€group,€in€which€many€of€theŠ $Ģ Šmodern€peoples€of€Western€Central€Asia,€Afghanistan,Š ų  ŠIran,€and€India€had€their€origin.€Thus€all€the€evidenceŠ Ģ t  Šclearly€reveals€the€close€and€indissoluble€links€betweenŠ   H  Šthe€history€of€Western€Central€Asia€and€that€of€itsŠ t   Šneighbors.€Close€ties€and€mutual€influence€have€from€theŠ H š  Šearliest€times€lighted€the€difficult€road€of€the€progressŠ  Ä  Šof€mankind€(Masson€and€Sarianidi€€1972:€169).Šš ˜ p(#p(# ŠĢAt€the€other€end€of€Central€Asia,€Eberhard€(1977)€suggestsŠ ˜@  Šthat€the€Qin€were€able€to€build€the€very€first€centralizedŠ l Šstate€in€China€at€least€in€part€thanks€to€their€control€ofŠ @č Štrade€with€Central€Asia€through€the€Wei€and€Tao€valleys.€OfŠ ¼ Šcourse,€the€later€dynasties€in€China€also€were€at€leastŠ č Šreformed€if€not€originally€formed€as€a€function€of€the€ups€andŠ ¼d Šdowns€of€their€relations€with€the€peoples€of€Central€Asia.€€Š 8 ŠĢExcessively€Sino„centric€perspectives€and€accounts€among€bothŠ 8ą ŠChinese€and€others€may€have€obscured€this€tandem€and€symbioticŠ  “ Šrelationship,€but€it€was€nonetheless€a€historical€fact.Š ąˆ ŠIndeed,€perhaps€it€was€so€important,€that€it€was€so€importantŠ “\ Šfor€Chinese€and€Sinophiles€to€try€to€obscure€it.Š ˆ0 Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąThe€traditional€interpretation€of€Sino„barbarianŠ 0Ų Šrelations...is€thus€clearly€not€a€valid€one....Š¬p(#p(# Šą0 p ąThe€evaluation€of€the€latter,€whether€done€by€a€ChineseŠ Ų€  Šor€a€Western€scholar,€has€been€too€Sinocentric.Š ¬T! ŠUnquestionably,€China€enjoyed€a€higher€level€of€culturalŠ €(" Šachievement,€but€it€was€not€isolated€from€its€neighbors.Š Tü# ŠFrom€Han€times,€there€is€evidence€that€China€wasŠ ( Š$ Šsubjected€to€outside€cultural€influences,€and€these€wereŠ ü ¤% Ševen€stronger€during€the€Sung€dynasty,€when€China€wasŠ Š!x& Šnever€in€a€position€to€force€its€world€view€onŠ ¤"L ' Šrecalcitrant€powerful€neighbors€(Kwanten€1979:104).Šx# !(p(#p(# ŠĢņ ņ7.€Gender€relations.€ó óWere€they€different€in€Central€Asia€fromŠ  %Č"* Šthose€elsewhere,€and€if€so,€how?€This€question€has€becomeŠ &Ø#+ Šimportant€in€recent€feminist€(re)interpretations€of€history.Š Ō&|$, ŠSince€history€has€been€very€much€written€by,€of,€and€for€menŠ Ø'P%- Š(to€paraphrase€Abraham€Lincoln),€all€people€can€or€shouldŠ |($&. Šwelcome€this€new€feminist€historiography€and€its€effort€to€setŠ P)ų&/ Šthe€historical€record€straight.€However,€Marija€GimbutasŠ $*Ģ'0 Š(l980,l981)€and€Riane€Eisler€(l987)€in€particular€attributeŠ ų* (1 Špatriarchy€(in€the€West)€to€the€incursion€of€warring€nomadsŠ Ģ+t)2 Šfrom€Central€Asia.Š  ,H*3 Š[....]Š t-+4 ŠŠ H.š+5 Šņ ņ8.€Ethnogenesis€and€ethnicityó ó.€Another€vital€concern€for€whichŠ X ŠCentral€Asia€is€of€special€relevance€is€ethnogenesis€andŠ 8ą Šņ ņó óethnic€identity,€not€to€mention€racial€identification.€TheŠ  “ Šrecurrent€major€and€incessant€more€minor€Vlkerwanderungen€in,Š ąˆ Šthrough,€and€out€of€Central€Asia€have€certainly€mixed€andŠ “\ Šmixed€up€ethnicity€and€race.€So€how€can€they€be€identifiedŠ ˆ0 Štoday?€Š \ Š[....]Š 0Ų ŠĢņ ņ9.€Religion.ó ó€Why€have€Central€Asians€been€so€hospitable€to€soŠ Ų €  Šmany€ņ ņó óreligions€brought€from€elsewhere€without,€however,Š ø `  Šdeveloping€any€major€religion€of€their€own?€However,€SinorŠ Œ 4  Š(l977:€101)€claims€that€several€mythological€themes€in€ChinaŠ `   Šand€Greece€originated€in€Central€Asia.€Why€were€some€and€notŠ 4 Ü  Šother€major€religions€welcome€in€and€transmitted€throughŠ °  ŠCentral€Asia?€Why€did€some€religions€succeed€others€where€andŠ Ü„  Šwhen€they€did,€but€not€elsewhere€or€at€other€times?€Why€haveŠ °X  Šsome€religions,€but€not€others,€survived€to€this€day,€and€whatŠ „, Šare€their€future€prospects?Š X Š[....]Š ,Ō ŠĢņ ņ10.€Nexuses.€ó óCentral€Asian€Bactria€was€long€known€as€"paradiseŠ Ō| Šon€Earth,"€"the€land€of€a€thousand€cities"€and€its€capitalŠ “\ ŠBactra€as€"the€mother€of€cities."€Toynbee€(1961:€2,€quoted€inŠ ˆ0 ŠHolt€1988:€31)€wrote€of€Bactria€as€a€place€where€"routesŠ \ Šconverge€from€all€quarters€of€the€compass€and€from€which€Š 0Ų Šroutes€radiate€out€to€all€quarters€of€the€compass€again."Š ¬ ŠThese€routes€connected€China,€India,€Iran,€the€Mediterranean,Š Ų€ Šand€of€course€other€parts€of€Central€Asia€itself.€ForŠ ¬T Šcenturies€before€the€Greek€Alexander€arrived,€Bactria€was€anŠ €( Šimportant€nexus,€and€that€is€why€Alexander€went€and€marriedŠ Tü Šthere.€What€were€ņ ņó óthe€otherņ ņ€ó óimportant€commercial€and€politicalŠ (Š Šnexuses€and€racial/€ethnic€and€religious€meltingpots€inŠ °  ŠCentral€Asia,€or€between€it€and€neighboring€regions?€What€wereŠ Ü„! Šspecial€cross€roads€of€trade€and€migration€and/or€focuses€ofŠ °X" Špolitical€and€military€rivalry€and€attention?€€[....]Š „,# ŠĢOn€the€"Inner€Asian€Frontiers€of€China"€a€similar€role€wasŠ ,!Ō% Šperhaps€played€on€the€silk€road€and€the€routes€of€migrationŠ "Ø& Šand€invasion€by€the€Kansu€(Haxi)€corridor,€the€Tarim€BasinŠ Ō"| ' Šoases,€Kashgar€and€the€passes€to€the€southwest€across€theŠ Ø#P!( ŠPamirs€and€to€the€northwest€across€the€western€end€of€the€TienŠ |$$") ŠShan€mountains.€These€passes€led€to€Taxila€in€Kashmir€and€toŠ P%ų"* ŠSamarkand€and€Bukhara€in€Sogdian€Transoxania€(meaning€accrossŠ $&Ģ#+ Šthe€Oxus€river€from€Persia€and€the€Caucasus),€where€the€silkŠ ų& $, Šroads€connected€to€the€West.€€Š Ģ't%- ŠĢLombard€(l975:€219)€identifies€related€trade€routes€and€threeŠ t)'/ Šcenters€of€particular€importance:€Merv,€Herat,€Balkh€andŠ H*š'0 Šespecially€Nishapur€on€the€fork€of€the€road€between€€BaghdadŠ +Ä(1 Šand€India;€Khwarzim€in€the€Oxus€delta€on€the€Aral€Sea,€whichŠ š+˜)2 Šwas€pivotal€for€both€the€east„west€and€north„south€trade;€and€Š Ä,l*3 Šthe€oases€of€Ma€wara'€an„Nahr€on€the€east„west€route€to€China.€Š ˜-@+4 ŠŠ l.,5 ŠSeveral€other€nexuses€were€mentioned€at€the€Urumqi€seminar.Š X ŠDuojie€Caidan€(l990)€referred€to€four€international€tradeŠ ,Ō Šroutes,€which€passed€through€the€Tupo€Kingdom€between€China,Š Ø ŠTibet€and€India.€Thomas€Hllman€evoked€the€area€where€theŠ Ō| ŠHunza,€Gilgit,€and€Insua€rivers€meet.€The€Iron€Gate€and€otherŠ ØP Špasses€through€the€eastern€Tien€Shan€mountains€wereŠ |$ Šbottlenecks€of€military€conflict€or€invasion€between€China€andŠ Pų Šthe€steppes,€as€well€as€connections€with€the€east„west€andŠ $Ģ Šnorth„south€trade€routes,€€north€of€the€Tien€Shan€range.€€€Š ų  ŠĢAll€these€and€other€nexuses€deserve€special€attention,€and€ofŠ   H  Šcourse€additional€archeological€digs.€Their€privilegedŠ t   Šlocations€can€reveal€much€about€migratory,€economic,Š H š  Špolitical,€military,€social,€and€cultural€currents€in€andŠ  Ä  Šthrough€Central€Asia€and€its€neighboring€regions.€They€areŠ š ˜  Šlikely€to€have€been€especially€active€melting€pots€not€only€asŠ Äl  Šimportant€points€of€transit.€Because€of€their€trade€and€otherŠ ˜@  Šeconomic€and/or€strategic€importance,€these€nexuses€also€wereŠ l Šbones€of€special€contention€for€economic,€political€andŠ @č Šmilitary€control.€Therefore,€they€are€even€more€likely€to€haveŠ ¼ Šchanged€controlling€hands€and€even€inhabitants€than€otherŠ č Šareas€in€Central€Asia.€Therefore,€some€of€these€crossroads€andŠ ¼d Šother€nexuses€may€also€offer€special€opportunities€to€study.Š 8 ŠThey€could€reveal€the€extent€to€which€their€socialŠ d  Šinstitutions,€culture€and€religion€were€changed€by€new€rulersŠ 8ą Šor€were€instead€syncretically€fused€with€or€adapted€to€alreadyŠ  “ Špreviously€prevalent€ones.€All€these€possibilities€areŠ ąˆ Šall€the€more€reason€to€identify€and€privilege€these€nexuses€inŠ “\ Šresearch€and€analysis.Š ˆ0 ŠĢņņPolitical€Economy€of€International€Relations€in€and€withŠ 0Ų ŠCentral€AsiaŠ ¬ ŠóóĢņ ņ11.€Production€and€Trade.ó ó€What€place€and€role€did€productionŠ ¬T! Šand€trade€in€and€through€Central€Asia€have€in€the€worldŠ Œ4" Šeconomy€or€the€Afro„Eurasian€economic€ņņsystemóó?€€Unfortunately,Š `# Šit€remains€the€case€as€Luc€Kwanten€rightly€observed€thatŠ 4 Ü$ ŠĢą0 p ąwhenever€the€history€of€nomadic€societies€is€examined,Š Ü!„& Šthe€social€sciences,€particularly€economics,€are€rarelyŠ °"X ' Štaken€into€consideration,€even€though€the€materials€referŠ „#,!( Šdirectly€and€indirectly€to€economic€affairs€(KwantenŠ X$") Šl979:€286).Š,%Ō"*p(#p(# ŠĢĢĢEven€more€lamentably,€this€lacuna€is€even€greater€when€itŠ |($&. Šcomes€to€examining€the€place€and€role€of€the€nomadic€and€otherŠ P)ų&/ Šsocieties€of€Central€Asia€in€the€political€economicŠ $*Ģ'0 Šdevelopment€of€Eurasia€as€a€whole.€The€geographical€„€andŠ ų* (1 Šperhaps€structural€and€functional€„€Central€Asian€center€ofŠ Ģ+t)2 Šthis€system€is€a€dark,€if€not€a€black,€hole€indeed.€€TheŠ  ,H*3 Šlittle€light€we€can€shed€on€this€matter€should€perhapsŠ t-+4 Šdistinguish€between€local€production€and€trade,€exchangeŠ H.š+5 Šbetween€adjoining€regions€and/or€interdependent€sectors€likeŠ X Šnomad€pastoralism€and€settled€agriculture,€and€long€distanceŠ ,Ō Štrade€through€Central€Asia.€€Š Ø ŠĢSeveral€Central€Asian€regions,€especially€in€what€KhazanovŠ ØP Šcalls€'Middle€Asia,'€long€had€highly€developed€agricultural,Š |$ Šmining,€manufacturing,€and€of€course€commerce,€which€supportedŠ Pų Šlarge€and€very€civilized€urban€settlements.€Š $Ģ Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąArcheological€surveys€in€Central€€Asia€are€at€lastŠ Ģ t  Šsetting€straight€the€record....Exceeding€all€earlierŠ   H  Šexpectations,Št  p(#p(# Šą0 p ąthe€spade€has€uncovered€ample€evidence€for€the€earlyŠ H š  Šdevelopment€of€irrigation,€commerce,€and€fortified€citiesŠ  Ä  Šin€ancient€Central€Asia.€Excavations€at€Mundigak,€DehŠ š ˜  ŠMorasi€Ghundai,€Shar„i„Sokhta,€Bandi€Khan„tepe,€Kizil„Š Äl  Štepe,€Talichkhan„tepe,€Altin„tepe€and€numerous€otherŠ ˜@  Šsites€have€shown€the€evolution€of€Bactrian€urbanizationŠ l Šfrom€the€time€of€the€Bronze€Age€(Holt€1988:€27).Š@čp(#p(# Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# ŠFor€instance,€Soviet€excavations€at€Namazga„tepe€and€Altin„Š č Štepe€in€southern€Turkmenia€reveal€bronze€age€urban€and€proto„Š ¼d Šurban€developments€about€2,000€BC.€Timber„grave€Srubnaya€andŠ 8 ŠAndrovono€sites€in€western€Turkmenia€reveal€high€culturalŠ d  Šdevelopments.€There€is€evidence€of€trade€links€from€some€ofŠ 8ą Šthese€settlements€with€Iran€and€Mesopotamia€to€the€southwest,Š  “ Šwith€the€Harappan€civilization€with€its€capital€of€Mohenjo„Š ąˆ Šdaro€on€the€Indus€to€the€southeast,€and€to€Bukhara€andŠ “\ ŠFerghana€to€the€East.Š ˆ0 ŠĢą0 p ąIt€seems€likely€that€trade€was€the€motivating€forceŠ 0Ų Šbehind€connections€between€India€and€Central€Asia,€whichŠ ¬ Šbecame€much€more€marked€in€the€Middle€Bronze€Age....WeŠ Ų€  Šsee€then€that€the€settled,€agricultural€communities€ofŠ ¬T! Šsouthern€Turkmenia€in€the€middle€Bronze€Age€comprisedŠ €(" Šsocieties€with€a€complex€and€highly€developed€economicŠ Tü# Šstructure,€with€crafts€as€a€special€sphere€of€productionŠ ( Š$ Šon€the€one€hand,€and€agriculture€on€the€other,€the€veryŠ ü ¤% Šexistence€of€this€division€suggesting€an€internalŠ Š!x& Šexchange€system€growing€into€trade€as€an€essential€linkŠ ¤"L ' Šin€the€economic€system€as€a€whole€(Masson€and€SarianidiŠ x# !( Š1972:€124,128).ŠL$ō!)p(#p(# ŠĢThen,€this€Central€Asian€civilization€declined,€as€did€itsŠ ō%œ#+ Šneighbors€in€the€Mesopotamian€and€Indus€valleys.€DevelopmentalŠ Č&p$, Šups€and€downs€also€characterized€other€parts€of€the€long€chainŠ œ'D%- Šof€irrigated€agricultural,€oasis,€and€urban€settlements€„€andŠ p(&. Šthe€trade€routes€that€linked€them€„€stretching€from€theŠ D)ģ&/ ŠCaspian€Sea€to€Lop€Nor€on€the€eastern€end€of€the€Tarim€Basin.Š *Ą'0 ŠEspecially€noteworthy€among€them€were€the€Tarim€Basin€oases€inŠ ģ*”(1 Šand€around€the€Taklamakan€Desert,€Samarkand,€Bukhara,€FerghanaŠ Ą+h)2 Šand€its€"heavenly€horses,"€Herat,€Merv,€and€Bactria,€the€lastŠ ”,<*3 Šof€which€we€will€return€to€below.Š h-+4 ŠŠ <.ä+5 ŠThe€age€old€relations€of€these€agricultural€and€urbanŠ X Šsettlements€in€Central€Asia€and€also€in€East€and€West€AsiaŠ ,Ō Šwith€the€nomad€herdsmen€in€between€have€been€the€subject€ofŠ Ø Šmuch€debate.€€The€trade€and€political€relations€between€nomadsŠ Ō| Šand€settlers€across€€the€ņņInner€Asian€Frontiers€of€Chinaóó€wereŠ ØP Šprominent€in€Owen€Lattimore's€(l940/1962)€classic.€LattimoreŠ |$ Šand€many€observers€since,€agree€that€war€was€an€extension€ofŠ Pų Štrade€between€nomads€and€settlers,€to€adapt€Clausewitz'sŠ $Ģ Šfamous€dictum.€€There€is€less€agreement€about€when€and€whyŠ ų  Štrade€/€war€was€initiated€and€how€the€costs€and€benefits€wereŠ Ģ t  Šshared€among€the€participants.€€Most€Chinese€spokesmenŠ   H  Šmaintained€that€"China"€was€self„sufficient€and€traded€withŠ t   Šthe€nomads€only€at€their€behest.€The€nomads€were€"greedy"€orŠ H š  Š"needy"€as€Nicola€Di€Cosmo€(l990)€terms€these€theories€ofŠ  Ä  ŠNomad„Settler€relations,€with€which€most€foreign€observersŠ š ˜  Šhave€agreed.€Therefore,€both€also€have€argued€that€theŠ Äl  Šperiodic€wars€were€either€due€to€nomad€invasions€to€despoilŠ ˜@  ŠChina€of€her€riches,€or€they€were€threats€€of€more€to€come€inŠ l Šorder€to€have€China€agree€to€a€sort€of€"protection"€throughŠ @č Štrade.€To€save€face,€the€Chinese€also€argued€that€the€nomadŠ ¼ Š"barbarians"€were€paying€her€"tribute."€Others,€and€especiallyŠ č ŠDi€Cosmo€(l990)€argue€that€Chinese€frontier€society€was€littleŠ ¼d Šmore€self„sufficient€than€their€nomad€neighbors€and€that€theŠ 8 Šinitiative€for€the€recurrent€wars€never€came€from€the€nomads.Š d  ŠMoreover,€the€nomads€also€drew€on€the€desert€oases€forŠ 8ą Šagricultural€and€handicraft€supplies.€Š  “ ŠĢWhat€is€established€is€that€the€nomads'€main€export€was€horsesŠ “\ Šraised€on€their€steppe€grasslands.€The€Chinese€had€anŠ ˆ0 Šinsatiable€demand€for€horses€they€could€not€raise€themselves,Š \ Šespecially€for€military€purposes€including€defense€against€theŠ 0Ų Šnomads€themselves.€The€Chinese€in€turn,€exported€silk€andŠ ¬ Šother€luxuries,€but€also€grain,€coarse€textiles,€arms€and€tea.Š Ų€  ŠSinor€1977:175€cites€Morris€Rossabi€to€the€effect€that€for€theŠ ¬T! ŠChinese,€tea€and€horses€were€so€inextricably€related€as€to€beŠ €(" Šadministered€by€the€same€authority.€The€price€of€horses€inŠ Tü# Šsilk€and/or€cash€fluctuated€with€supply€and€demand,€which€inŠ ( Š$ Šturn€varied€according€to€changing€economic€andŠ ü ¤% Špolitical/military€circumstances.Š Š!x& Š€ĢKhazanov€(l979)€pursues€his€thesis€of€the€nomads'Š x# !( Š"indissoluble€and€necessary€€connection€with€the€outsideŠ L$ō!) Šworld"€(p.€3)€and€examines€a€"wide€spectrum€of€turbulentŠ  %Č"* Šinterrelations€between€nomads€and€the€sedentary€world"€(p.Š ō%œ#+ Š222):Š Č&p$, ŠĢą0 p ąThe€spectrum€of€these€relations€varies€from€irregularŠ p(&. Šraids€on€and€robbery€of€agriculturalists€and€townsmen€toŠ D)ģ&/ Šthe€imposition€on€them€of€more€or€less€long„termŠ *Ą'0 Šrelations€of€protection€and€dependence.€The€benefits€fromŠ ģ*”(1 Šsuch€non„economic€relations€for€nomads€are€so€evidentŠ Ą+h)2 Šthat€they€need€not€be€examined€in€detail€here.€Nomads€areŠ ”,<*3 Šā āin€a€position€Šh-+4p(#p(# Šą0 p ą[due€to€their€military€superiority€and€mobility]€in€whichŠ X Šā āthey€are€able€to€acquire€agricultural€products€andŠ ,Ō Šhandicraft€goods€they€€need€(€and€also€livestock)€byŠ Ø Šforce,€or€by€threatening€such,€while€giving€little€orŠ Ō| Šnothing€in€exchange....In€the€long€term€it€was€moreŠ ØP Šbeneficial€and€safer€for€nomads€to€insist€the€sedentaryŠ |$ Špopulation€paid€them€protection€and€defense€against€otherŠ Pų Šgroups€of€nomads,€and€just€to€be€left€in€peace.€On€theŠ $Ģ Šlocal€level€such€relations€were€more€widespread€in€theŠ ų  ŠNear€East€and€partly€also€in€the€Middle€East.€They€wereŠ Ģ t  Šconsiderably€less€common€in€the€Eurasian€steppesŠ   H  Š(Khazanov€1079:€222,223).Št  p(#p(# ŠĢThere,€Khazanov€(l979:€224„227)€distinguishes€(1)€directŠ  Ä  Širregular€and€uncontrolled€pillage,€(2)€tribute,€(3)€directŠ š ˜  Štaxation,€(4)€the€nomads'€own€€creation€of€agricultural€andŠ Äl  Šhandicraft€sectors,€and€(5)€seizure€of€land€and€exaction€ofŠ ˜@  Šrent€or€exploitation€of€peasants€who€are€turned€into€tenants.Š l ŠAnother€dimension,€mentioned€by€Barfield€(l989:€239)€withŠ @č Šregard€to€a€particular€case,€may€have€had€more€generalŠ ¼ Šapplicability:€The€nomadic€leadership€elite€may€have€beenŠ č Šserved€more€by€trade€that€provided€luxury€goods,€and€theŠ ¼d Šcommoners€by€raids€that€yielded€more€grain,€metals,Š 8 Šmanufactures,€and€livestock.€Trade€and€perhaps€raid€didŠ d  Šsupport€greater€differentiation€and€inequality€within€nomadŠ 8ą Šsociety,€and€perhaps€within€settled€frontier€society€also.Š  “ ŠThus,€Central€Asian€peoples€and€their€neighbors€were€dependentŠ ąˆ Šon€this€division€and€exchange€of€labor€and€its€products€withŠ “\ Šeach€other,€however€much€some€of€them€may€have€sought€to€denyŠ ˆ0 Šor€denigrate€this€inter„dependence.€Š \ ŠĢThere€was€also€long„distance€trade,€mostly€through€a€chain€ofŠ ¬ Šshorter€relays€along€the€"Silk€Road(s)"€from€one€end€ofŠ Ų€  ŠEurasia€to€the€other.€Central€Asian€intermediaries€along€theŠ ¬T! Šway€took€their€cut€and€sought€to€protect€their€interests€inŠ €(" Šthis€transcontinental€trade.€€Recently€there€have€again€beenŠ Tü# Šmany€nostalgic€references€to€the€"Silk€Road"€(whose€name€wasŠ ( Š$ Šcoined€in€the€19th€century€by€the€German€Baron€Ferdinand€vonŠ ü ¤% ŠRichthoven).€UNESCO€organized€an€"Integral€Study€of€the€SilkŠ Š!x& ŠRoads:€Roads€of€Dialogue."€I€took€part€in€its€First€DesertŠ ¤"L ' ŠRoute€Expedition.€It€covered€5000€km€overland€along€theŠ x# !( ŠEastern€end€of€the€Silk€Road€from€Xian€to€Kashgar,€and€nearlyŠ L$ō!) Š10,000€km€with€almost€daily€side€trips.€The€Urumqi€seminar,€atŠ  %Č"* Šwhich€I€presented€an€early€version€of€this€paper,€was€anŠ ō%œ#+ Šadjunct€to€this€expedition.€Scholars€from€€many€countries€andŠ Č&p$, Šdisciplines€participated€in€both€the€expedition€and€theŠ œ'D%- Šseminar.€€Yet€trade€along€the€Silk€Road€received€no€attentionŠ p(&. Šon€our€expedition€and€only€very€short€shrift€at€the€closingŠ D)ģ&/ Šseminar.€There€was€little€or€no€consideration€of€the€economyŠ *Ą'0 Šin€our,€let€alone€any€other,€part€of€Central€Asia.€The€placeŠ ģ*”(1 Šof€the€economy€in€connecting€the€outlying€Afro„Eurasian€areas,Š Ą+h)2 Šlet€alone€their€role€in€the€operation€of€the€entireŠ ”,<*3 Šcontinental€economic€system,€went€unmentioned,€except€in€myŠ h-+4 Šown€uninformed€and€brief€interventions.€I€expressed€hope€thatŠ <.ä+5 Šthese€and€other€important€questions€receive€more€attention€inŠ X Šthe€expeditions,€which€are€still€planned€by€UNESCO€over€theŠ ,Ō ŠSteppe€and€Maritime€routes.€Š Ø ŠĢThe€"Silk"€road€could€equally€well€be€called€the€road€of€jadeŠ ØP Š(indeed,€it€probably€began€that€way,€as€jade€was€imported€intoŠ |$ ŠChina€from€Central€Asia).€Or€the€road€could€be€called€one€ofŠ Pų Šgold,€silver;€other€metals,€wood,€wool,€clay€and€theirŠ $Ģ Šmanufactures;€spices,€grains,€and€other€foodstuffs;€andŠ ų  Šespecially€horses,€other€livestock,€human€slaves€and€a€host€ofŠ Ģ t  Šother€items€produced€and€traded€through€an€organized€divisionŠ   H  Šand€exchange€of€labor€in€and€through€Central€Asia€and€itsŠ t   Šneighboring€regions.€Š H š  ŠĢAt€best,€here€it€is€only€possible€to€raise€a€few,€selected€andŠ š ˜  Šselective,€general€questions€about€these€economic€relations.Š Äl  ŠIn€some€cases,€I€will€also€offer€some€elements€of€answersŠ ˜@  Šsuggested€in€other€papers€presented€at€the€Urumqi€seminar.€(IŠ l Šwill€identify€these€as€1990S).Š @č ŠĢ„€When€was€the€Silk€Road€and€effective€East„West,€but€alsoŠ č ŠNorth„South,€long€distance€trade€across€Asia€opened?€TheŠ ¼d ŠChinese€traditionally€date€this€opening€is€105€or€115€BC,€orŠ 8 Šwith€Zhan€Qian's€€mission€to€the€West€in€the€2nd€century€AD.Š d  ŠHowever,€Irene€Franck€and€David€Brownstone€(1986:€1)€openŠ 8ą Štheir€ņņThe€Silk€Road.€A€Historyóó€by€saying€that€"the€Silk€RoadŠ  “ Šis€actually€far€older€than€this,€perhaps€by€2,000€years€orŠ ąˆ Šmore.€It€was,€for€at€least€4,000€years,€the€main€avenue€ofŠ “\ Šcommunication€between€the€Mediterranean€and€China."€LinŠ ˆ0 ŠZhichun€(l990S),€cites€€evidence€of€Chinese€trade€€andŠ \ Šmigratory€contacts€with€€Siberia€and€with€western€Central€AsiaŠ 0Ų Šalready€500,€1,500€and€even€5,000€years€before€Christ.€WangŠ ¬ ŠBinghua€(l990S)€argues€that€archeological€finds€in€ChinaŠ Ų€  Šindicate€"ancient€€traffic€routes...[whose]€scale€ofŠ ¬T! Šconnections€is€not€weak...as€early€as€the€Yinshang€Dynasty€ofŠ €(" Šthe€twelfth€century€[BC]."€A.€Askarov€(1990S)€found€€ChineseŠ Tü# Šsilk€dating€from€1,500€BC€in€several€€Bactrian€excavations€andŠ ( Š$ Šespecially€from€Sapalle€in€what€is€now€southern€Uzbekistan.Š ü ¤% ŠSimilar€vases€dating€from€1200€to€1200€BC€excavated€there€andŠ Š!x& Šin€parts€of€China€make€it€"now€possible€to€say€that€alreadyŠ ¤"L ' Šduring€the€period€of€the€Western€Zhou€and€Zhou€Yuan,€tradeŠ x# !( Šcontacts€existed€between€the€civilizations€of€Shanxi€provinceŠ L$ō!) Šand€those€of€Ancient€Bactrium€and€Sogdiana."€€Perhaps€it€isŠ  %Č"* Šrevealing€that€the€name€of€the€early€Shang€Dynasty€in€ChinaŠ ō%œ#+ Šmeant€"merchant."Š Č&p$, ŠĢPersia€was€near€the€other€end€of€the€Silk€Road€and€along€theŠ p(&. Šconnecting€€Persian€North„South€Royal€Road€and€the€Spice€RoadŠ D)ģ&/ Šinto€Arabia.€About€521€BC,€the€Achaemenid€King€Darius€ofŠ *Ą'0 ŠPersia€had€the€following€inscribed€€on€his€palace:Š ģ*”(1 ŠĢą0 p ąThis€is€the€palace€which€I€built€at€Susa.€From€afar€itsŠ ”,<*3 Šornamentation€was€brought....The€cedar€timber...from€aŠ h-+4 Šmountain€named€[Lebanon]....€The€Assyrian€people€broughtŠ <.ä+5 Šit€to€Babylon;€from€Babylon€the€Carians€and€the€IoniansŠ X Šbrought€it€to€Susa.€The€yaku€timber€was€brought€fromŠ ,Ō ŠGandara€and€from€Carmania.€The€gold€was€brought€fromŠ Ø ŠSardis€and€from€Bactria,€which€here€was€wrought.€TheŠ Ō| Šprecious€lapus„lazuli€and€carnelian,€which€was€wroughtŠ ØP Šhere,€was€brought€from€Sogdiana.€The€precious€stoneŠ |$ Šturquoise€was€brought€from€Chorasmia,€which€was€wroughtŠ Pų Šhere.€The€silver€and€the€ebony€were€brought€from€Egypt.Š $Ģ ŠThe€ornamentation€with€which€the€wall€was€adorned€wasŠ ų  Šbrought€from€Ionia.€The€ivory,€which€was€wrought€here,Š Ģ t  Šwas€brought€from€Ethiopia,€and€from€€Sind€and€fromŠ   H  ŠArachosia.€The€stone€columns,€which€here€were€wrought,Š t   Šwere€brought€from€Elam.€The€stone„cutters€who€wrought€theŠ H š  Šstone€were€Ionians€and€Sardians.€The€goldsmiths€whoŠ  Ä  Šwrought€the€gold€were€Medes€and€Egyptians.€The€men€whoŠ š ˜  Šwrought€the€baked€bricks€were€Babylonians.€The€men€whoŠ Äl  Šadorned€the€wall€were€Medes€and€Egyptians€(quoted€inŠ ˜@  ŠFranck€and€Brownstone€1986:€65„66).Šlp(#p(# ŠĢEven€as€the€crow€flies,€the€sources€Darius€mentions€wereŠ ¼ Šseveral€thousand€miles€distant.€However,€as€Darius€did€notŠ č Štire€reiterating,€this€long€distance€trade€also€supportedŠ ¼d Šlocal€industry€as€well€as,€of€course,€himself.€€Moreover,Š 8 Šthere€is€also€evidence€of€earlier€and€farther€reachingŠ d  Šorganized€trans„Asian€trade.€Herodotus'€references€to€theŠ 8ą ŠScythians€and€modern€archeological€finds€suggest€trade€throughŠ  “ ŠCentral€Asia€of€gold€from€Siberia€and€silk€from€China.€In€theŠ ąˆ Šthird€century€BC,€the€Mauryan€empire€in€India€maintained€theŠ “\ Š"Grand€Road"€from€Bactria,€through€the€Kabul€River€Valley€andŠ ˆ0 Šthe€Khyber€Pass€into€the€Punjab€to€the€Bay€of€Bengal€2,600Š \ Šmiles€(4,000€Km)€distant.€The€state€maintained€theŠ 0Ų Šinfrastructure€of€roads,€singposts,€guardhouses,€water€wells,Š ¬ Šcauseways,€ferries,€etc.,€and€shelters€were€provided€forŠ Ų€  Štraders€and€other€travellers.€€Š ¬T! ŠĢThe€ņņHou€Han€Shuóó€Official€History€of€the€Chinese€Han€Dynasty,Š Tü# Šin€its€Chapters€61€and€96A€on€the€western€regions€(translated,Š ( Š$ Šcommented€and€edited€by€Hulsewe€and€Lowe,€and€published€byŠ ü ¤% ŠBrill€in€Leiden),€records€numerous€Chinese€contacts€with€landsŠ Š!x& Šand€their€points€of€political€and€commercial€interest€acrossŠ ¤"L ' ŠAsia.€Each€is€introduced€with€the€number€of€its€population€andŠ x# !( Šmen€it€can€put€under€arms,€and€its€distance€in€thousands€of€liŠ L$ō!) Šfrom€the€Chinese€capital€Loyang.€However,€even€where€and€whenŠ  %Č"* Šwe€lack€such€written€official€testimony€by€contemporaries€orŠ ō%œ#+ Šarcheological€evidence,€we€may€suppose€that€trade€was€stillŠ Č&p$, Šolder€and€more€widespread€than€recorded.€Thus,€for€instance,Š œ'D%- ŠHan€China's€envoy€Chang€Ch'ien€wrote€about€his€travels€in€theŠ p(&. Šsecond€century:Š D)ģ&/ Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąWhen€I€was€in€Bactria,€I€saw€there€a€stick€ofŠ ģ*”(1 Šbamboo...and€some€cloth€from€[Chinese]€Szechuan.€When€IŠ Ą+h)2 Šasked€the€inhabitants€how€they€obtained€possesion€ofŠ ”,<*3 Šthese€they€replied€"the€inhabitants€of€our€country€buyŠ h-+4 Šthem€in€India"€(cited€in€Franck€and€Brownstone€1986:€96).Š<.ä+5p(#p(# Š‡That€is,€trade€relations€preceeded€and€exceeded€diplomaticŠ X Šones.€Š ,Ō ŠĢ„€How€were€trade€relations€maintained€between€Han€China€andŠ Ō| ŠImperial€Rome,€and€how€significant€were€they€to€them€and€theirŠ ØP Šintermediaries?€€Some€archeological€evidence€remains.€OdaniŠ |$ Š(l990S)€refers€to€bilingual€coins€with€Chinese€one€side€andŠ Pų ŠKharosthi€on€the€other.€€Kushan€gold€coins€were€of€the€sameŠ $Ģ Šabout€8€gram€weight€as€Roman€Aureus€ones€and€"might€beŠ ų  Šexchangeable€with€each€other.€If€I€may€be€allowed€a€littleŠ Ģ t  Šexaggeration,€an€international€currency€system€from€Rome€toŠ   H  ŠChina€came€into€existence€in€the€ancient€world."€€ContemporaryŠ t   Šobservers,€like€Pliny,€and€several€historians€of€our€time€like€Š H š  ŠHudson€(l931),€Teggart€(l939),€Wheeler€(l954)€and€Yu€(l967)Š  Ä  Šhave€commented€on€the€Rome's€import€of€silk€and€export€ofŠ š ˜  Šbullion.€They€noted€the€deleterious€effect€on€Rome€of€itsŠ Äl  Šresulting€negative€balance€of€trade€and€payments€with€theŠ ˜@  ŠEast.€Teggart€(l939)€also€quotes€Cicero€to€the€effect€thatŠ l Š"the€credit€of€the€Roman€money„market€is€intimately€bound€upŠ @č Šwith€the€prosperity€of€Asia;€a€disaster€cannot€occur€thereŠ ¼ Šwithout€shaking€our€credit€to€its€foundations"€(p.€74,€n.€20).€Š č ŠĢĢHowever,€China€may€have€lost€bullion€as€well.€€Gold€seems€toŠ d  Šhave€travelled€predominantly€€eastward€and€silver€westward,Š 8ą Šbecause€of€differential€gold/silver€ratios.€€There€is€generalŠ  “ Šagreement€that€both€ends€of€the€road€dealt€with€Kushan€IndiaŠ ąˆ Šand€especially€with€and€through€Parthian€Persia.€Indeed,Š “\ Šparticular€merchants€only€travelled€back€and€forth€part€of€theŠ ˆ0 Šway€then€and€later.€The€same€goods€were€bought€and€sold€manyŠ \ Štimes€along€the€way.€The€middlemen,€mostly€professionalŠ 0Ų Šmerchants€from€urban€regions,€seem€to€have€derived€theŠ ¬ Šgreatest€benefit€from€this€trade,€and€they€sought€to€defendŠ Ų€  Štheir€monopoly€position€on€the€route(s).€Palmyra€and€its€overŠ ¬T! Ša€half€million€population€lived€entirely€from€this€trade,€andŠ €(" ŠAntioch,€Petra,€Sydon€and€other€cities€in€the€LevantŠ Tü# Šsubstantially€so.€€Barthold€(1956)€argues€that€the€greatestŠ ( Š$ Šadvantage€from€this€trade€was€derived€by€the€Persians,€firstŠ ü ¤% Šunder€the€Parthians€and€then€under€the€Sasanids.€Š Š!x& ŠĢą0 p ąBy€every€means€at€their€disposal€[they]€impeded€theŠ x# !( Šcommunications€between€China€and€the€Roman€Empire,€inŠ L$ō!) Šorder€to€retain€the€profitable€role€of€commercialŠ  %Č"* Šintermediaries.€Under€the€Sasanids,€the€Persians€held€theŠ ō%œ#+ Šmost€important€sea€and€land€routes€of€world€commerce.€TheŠ Č&p$, Šinfluence€of€Sasanian€Persia,€as€well€as€of€China€andŠ œ'D%- ŠIndia,€and€the€remnants€of€Graeco„Bactrian€culture€helpedŠ p(&. Što€raise€the€cultural€level€of€the€Central€AsianŠ D)ģ&/ ŠIranians,€especially€the€Sogdians€(Barthold€1956:€6).€Š*Ą'0p(#p(# ŠĢThen€as€later,€political€alliances€and€rivalries€as€well€asŠ Ą+h)2 Šmilitary€operations€€often€had€competition€over€trade€andŠ ”,<*3 Štrade€routes€as€their€background,€if€not€their€very€cause.€WeŠ h-+4 Šwill€return€to€this€matter€below.Š <.ä+5 Š‡„€Was€the€long€post€"classical"€and€"medieval"€period€one€ofŠ X Š"feudal"€isolation?€Or€on€the€contrary,€did€pan€Afro„EurasianŠ ,Ō Štrade€and€other€contacts€flourish,€especially€in€and€through€Š Ø ŠCentral€Asia?€€Š Ō| ŠĢ„€„€For€the€early€period,€McNeill€(l964)€believes€that€€theŠ |$ ŠGupta€state€inŠ Pų ŠĢą0 p ąIndia€therefore€appears€to€have€played€the€leading€roleŠ ų  Šin€the€entire€Eurasian€world€between€200€and€600€AD....ŠĢ t p(#p(# Šą0 p ąMilitary€conquests€played€almost€no€part:€merchants€andŠ   H  Šmissionaries€took€the€place€of€the€armies€of€Macedon€andŠ t   ŠRome.€Consequently,€Indian€expansion€followed€tradeŠ H š  Šroutes,€particularly€the€sea€route€to€southeast€Asia€andŠ  Ä  Šthe€islands€of€€Indonesia,€and€the€overland€trail€throughŠ š ˜  Šthe€oases€of€central€Asia€to€northwest€China€(McNeillŠ Äl  Š1964:362,367).Š˜@ p(#p(# ŠĢThe€eastward€migration€of€Buddhist€religion€and€art,€begun€inŠ @č ŠKushan€times,€continued€eastward€along€the€Silk€Road.€It€leftŠ ¼ Šits€mark€in€many€"Thousand€Buddha€caves"€that€our€expeditionŠ č Švisited€in€Xinjiang€or€Eastern€Turkestan.€However,€Gupta€powerŠ ¼d Šand€influence€waned,€and€Turkic€trade€and€power€increasedŠ 8 Š(also€at€Gupta€expense?).Š d  ŠĢ„€„€During€the€6th€century,€much€of€Asia€from€Manchuria€to€theŠ  “ ŠAral€Sea€was€dominated€by€the€Eastern€and€Western€TurkicŠ ąˆ Šempires.Š “\ Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąTrade€played€an€important€role€in€the€Turkic€empire.Š \ ŠThrough€their€victory€over€the€Juan„juan,€the€Turks€hadŠ 0Ų Šgained€control€over€Central€Asian€trade€routes,€and€henceŠ ¬ Šover€the€€lucrative€silk€trade€between€China€andŠ Ų€  ŠByzantium.€The€Turks€had€no€intention€of€eitherŠ ¬T! Šabandoning€the€trade€or€sharing€it€with€otherŠ €(" Šintermediaries....Inevitably,€this€led€to€war€between€theŠ Tü# ŠTurks€and€the€Sassanian€empire€[in€Persia€who€had€beenŠ ( Š$ Šthe€intermediaries].€In€order€to€create€a€viableŠ ü ¤% Šmonopoly,€the€Turks€needed€to€be€certain€that€theŠ Š!x& ŠByzantine€empire€was€willing€to€purchase€silk€directlyŠ ¤"L ' Šfrom€the€Turks€rather€than€via€established€routesŠ x# !( Š(Kwanten€l979:39).ŠL$ō!)p(#p(# ŠĢThe€Turks€first€sent€a€Sogdian€emissary€to€€the€Sassanians;Š ō%œ#+ Šand€when€these€rejected€his€proposals,€they€sent€him€on€toŠ Č&p$, ŠConstantinople.€The€Byzantines,€for€their€part,€had€no€loveŠ œ'D%- Šlost€for€the€Persians€and€had€already€made€overtures€forŠ p(&. Šdirect€contact€with€China.€Thus€the€Byzantine€Emperor€JustinŠ D)ģ&/ ŠII€concluded€an€anti„Persian€alliance€with€the€Turk€IstmiŠ *Ą'0 Š(cf.€also€Grousset€1970:83).€The€silk€trade€across€CentralŠ ģ*”(1 ŠAsia€was€a,€if€not€the,€common€denominator.€Moreover,€Š Ą+h)2 ŠĢ€€€€€The€western€domains€of€the€Turkic€empire€had€theŠ h-+4 Šprincipal€ą0 ąrole€in€the€sale€of€the€silk€while€the€easternŠ <.ä+5 Šdomains€acquired€it€from€China.€Hence€theŠ X Šrequirements€of€the€western€domains€€hadŠ ,Ō Šimportant€repercussions€in€the€eastern€domains,Š Ø Šin€particular€on€Sino„Turkic€relations....ŠŌ| (# (# Šą0 p ąBecause€of€the€importance€of€trade€to€the€Turkic€empire,Š ØP Šit€is€imperative€to€examine€the€relationship€between€warŠ |$ Šand€trade€in€Turkic€politics.€It€then€quickly€becomesŠ Pų Šclear€that€the€principal€reason€for€the€numerous€wars€theŠ $Ģ ŠTurks€launched,€on€both€the€eastern€and€westernŠ ų  Šfrontiers,€but€especially€on€the€former,€were€economicŠ Ģ t  Šones€(Kwanten€l979:39„40).Š  H p(#p(# ŠĢSimilarly,€Beckwith€(l987)€summarizes€that€the€TurksŠ H š  ŠĢą0 p ąimpinged€on€the€borders€of€all€of€the€great€Old€WorldŠ š ˜  Šcivilizations,€including€the€Central€Asian€city„statesŠ Äl  Šand€India.€The€Turks€made€it€their€first€order€ofŠ ˜@  Šbusiness€to€inform€their€neighbors€to€the€east€and€westŠ l Šthat€they€were€vitally€interested€in€trade.€When€theŠ @č ŠTurks€annexed€most€of€the€Central€Asian€city„states€„„Š ¼ Šgreat€centers€for€the€east„west€and€north„south€caravanŠ č Štrade€„„€in€the€second€half€of€the€sixth€century,€theyŠ ¼d Šalso€removed€the€political€obstacles€to€relatively€high„Š 8 Švolume€transcontinental€trade....The€Turks'€greatŠ d  Šinterest€in€commerce€did€not€means€that€they€dominatedŠ 8ą Šit;€they€were€its€patrons.€Most€of€the€internationalŠ  “ Štrade€during€the€Early€Middle€Ages€was€in€the€hands€ofŠ ąˆ Šothers....Trade€was€almost€totally€monopolized€by€two€orŠ “\ Šthree€great€trading€peoples:€the€Jews,€the€Norsemen,€andŠ ˆ0 Šthe€Sogdians.€The€profits€from€this€trade€in€silk,Š \ Šspices,€perfumes,€war€materiel,€horses,€and€otherŠ 0Ų Šproducts€stimulated€not€only€imperialism,€but€also€localŠ ¬ Šindustry€and€local€trade€(Beckwith€l987:€178„180).€ŠŲ€ p(#p(# ŠĢAmong€the€"other€products,"€an€important€place€came€to€beŠ €(" Šoccupied€by€gold,€silver€and€slaves,€particularly€during€theŠ Tü# Šlater€Islamic€caliphate.€Shipments€of€bullion€and€coinsŠ ( Š$ Šgreased€the€way€for€trade,€including€the€very€important€slaveŠ ü ¤% Štrade.€€Lombard€(l975;€194„203)€€mentions€three€main€sourcesŠ Š!x& Šfor€slaves:€€Africa,€ņņSlavóóic€Central€and€Eastern€EuropeŠ ¤"L ' Š(although€Western€Europe€was€also€a€source,€and€RadhaniteŠ x# !( ŠJewish€and€Frankish€merchants€used€the€Mediterranean€and€BlackŠ L$ō!) ŠSeas€for€transshipment),€and€Turkestan.€€Turkish€wars,€even€ifŠ  %Č"* Šthey€were€fought€for€other€reasons,€also€generated€captivesŠ ō%œ#+ Šand€a€supply€of€slaves.€Georgia€became€a€well€known€source€ofŠ Č&p$, Šslaves.€However,€Kim€Ho€Dong€(personal€communication)€suspectsŠ œ'D%- Šthat€captives€on€the€"inner€Asian€frontier"€of€China€were€notŠ p(&. Šused€in€Eastern€Central€Asia€as€much€as€they€were€alsoŠ D)ģ&/ Štranshipped€westward.€Lombard€(l975:€195)€regards€the€slaveŠ *Ą'0 Štrade€as€of€"utmost€importance."€Albeit€referring€to€itsŠ ģ*”(1 Šwestern€end,€Howard€Adelson€(1962:47)€suggests€that€the€salveŠ Ą+h)2 Štrade€may€well€have€been€ņņtheóó€most€important€part€of€medievalŠ ”,<*3 Šinternational€commerce.€Š h-+4 ŠŠ <.ä+5 ŠByzantine€Constantinople€often€had€little€hinterland€of€itsŠ X Šown€and€lived€for€many€centuries€from€this€commerce,€of€courseŠ ,Ō Šincluding€that€with€Central€Asia.€The€city€thrived€on€itsŠ Ø Šlocation€on€the€east„west€crossroads€between€Asia€and€EuropeŠ Ō| Šand€the€north„south€ones€between€the€Baltic,€theŠ ØP ŠMediterranean,€Western€Asia€and€North€Africa.€One€ofŠ |$ ŠConstantinople's€functions€was€to€funnel€African€gold€fromŠ Pų ŠNubia€and€the€Sudan€to€Syria,€Mesopotamia,€Persia€and€"to€theŠ $Ģ Štrading€centers€of€central€Asia€„Samarkand,€Bukhara,€KhwarizmŠ ų  Š„€which€commanded€the€route€to€the€Russian€rivers,€the€countryŠ Ģ t  Šof€the€Turks,€China,€and€India"€(Lombard€1975:114).€€However,Š   H  Šgold€was€also€produced€in€the€mountains€of€the€Caucasus,€theŠ t   ŠUrals,€the€Altai,€Tibet,€and€in€Turkestan.€The€more€commonlyŠ H š  Šused€silver€often€came€in€combination€with€lead€in€theŠ  Ä  ŠCaucasus,€northern€Persia,€and€parts€of€Central€Asia,Š š ˜  Šespecially€in€Afghanistan,€as€well€as€from€the€traditionalŠ Äl  Šsilver€mines€in€Spain.Š ˜@  Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# ŠThe€Turkish€empire(s)€did€not€last€long.€In€the€7th€and€8thŠ @č Šcenturies€they€gave€way€to€the€Tang€Dynasty€expanding€westwardŠ ¼ Šfrom€China,€the€Tibetan€empire€expanding€northwards,€theŠ č ŠMuslims€overrunning€Iraq€and€Persia€and€expanding€eastward,Š ¼d Šthe€Byzantines€still€holding€their€own,€and€the€FrankishŠ 8 Šempire€rising€in€Western€Europe.€The€Islamic€caliphate€and€theŠ d  Š"world"€economy€around€it,€so€masterfully€analyzed€amongŠ 8ą Šothers€by€€Hodgson€(1974)€and€Lombard€(1975),€was€probably€theŠ  “ Šdriving€force,€with€its€drivers€seat€in€Baghdad.€HodgsonŠ ąˆ Šcomments€Š “\ Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąIt€can€be€surmised€that€the€commercial€life€of€the€landsŠ \ Šof€Muslim€rule€was€given€a€positive€impetus€by€the€greatŠ 0Ų Šactivity€in€China,€especially€considering€its€importantŠ ¬ Šconnections€with€China€both€via€the€Southern€Seas€andŠ Ų€  Šoverland€through€central€Eurasia€(Hodgson€l974:I,233)Š¬T!p(#p(# ŠĢBeyond€that€indeed,€as€Beckwith€notesŠ Tü# ŠĢą0 p ąthe€evidence€shows€that,€during€the€Early€Middle€Ages,Š ü ¤% Šthe€Tibetan€Empire€and€Frankish€Western€Europe€wereŠ Š!x& Šintegral€parts€of€a€civilized€world€which€included€theŠ ¤"L ' ŠIslamic€caliphate€and€T'ang€China€and€was€"focused"€(toŠ x# !( Šadapt€Pirenne's€usage)€on€Central€Eurasia....TheŠ L$ō!) Šimportance€of€the€international€trade€routes€throughŠ  %Č"* ŠCentral€Eurasia€cannot€be€overemphasized.€All€of€theŠ ō%œ#+ Šgreat€early€medieval€powers€bordered€on€and€had€intimateŠ Č&p$, Špolitical€and€military€involvement€in€that€vast€region,Š œ'D%- Šand€the€newer€powers,€the€Frankish,€Arab,€and€TibetanŠ p(&. Šempires€expanded€deep€into€it€(Beckwith€1987:€196,€193).ŠD)ģ&/p(#p(# ŠĢņ ņ12.€World€System€Wide€International€Politicaló ó€ņ ņEconomicŠ ģ*”(1 ŠRelations.ó ó€What€role,€then,€did€Central€Asia€play€in€EurasianŠ Ģ+t)2 Šwide€ņ ņó óinter"national"€political€economic€and€militaryŠ ¬,T*3 Šrelations?€How€did€the€world€system€work€through€its€"missing"Š €-(+4 Šlink€in€Central€Asia?€€In€his€synthesis€of€ņņThe€Empire€of€theŠ T.ü+5 ŠSteppes:€A€History€of€Central€Asiaóó,€Grousset€(l970)€writesŠ X Šthat€hisŠ ,Ō ŠĢą0 p ąaim€here€is€to€show€the€colossal€impact€of€the€firstŠ Ō| ŠHunnic€thrust€on€the€destinies€of€Asia...[that]€started€aŠ ØP Šsequence€of€repercussions€which€were€felt€as€far€away€asŠ |$ ŠWestern€Asia€and€India.€Afghanistan€was€lost€toŠ Pų ŠHellenism....€The€same€process€continues€throughoutŠ $Ģ Šhistory€which€is€our€present€study.€The€slightest€impulseŠ ų  Šat€one€end€of€the€steppe€inevitably€sets€in€motion€aŠ Ģ t  Šchain€of€quite€unexpected€consequences€in€all€fourŠ   H  Šcorners€of€this€immense€zone€of€migrations€(GroussetŠ t   Š1970:32).ŠH š p(#p(# ŠĢIndeed€as€we€have€already€noted€before,€throughout€millenniaŠ š ˜  Šof€history€this€chain€of€links€transferred€repercussionsŠ Äl  Šbeyond€the€four€corners€of€Central€Asia€itself€and€into€theŠ ˜@  Šoutlying€civilizations€and€empires.€Moreover,€the€links€in€theŠ l Šchain€were€forged€not€only€by€migrations.€As€Grousset€goes€onŠ @č Što€demonstrate€time€and€again,€the€links€also€includedŠ ¼ Šwidespread€cultural,€political€and€economic€events,€processesŠ č Šand€diffusion,€which€included€areas€in€Central€Asia€along€withŠ ¼d Šothers.€Grousset€himself€however€is€among€those€who€"giveŠ 8 Šlittle€consideration€to€economic€affairs"€as€Kwanten€observed.Š d  ŠTherefore,€he€also€fails€to€give€their€due€to€the€impulse€andŠ 8ą Šfar€reaching€consequences€of€local€and€inter"national"Š  “ Špolitical€economic€relations.€€Š ąˆ ŠĢAn€interesting€instance€are€the€already€prior€politicalŠ ˆ0 Šeconomic€relations,€whose€importance€attracted€Alexander€theŠ \ ŠGreat€to€invade€Egypt,€establish€a€capital€in€Babylon,€conquerŠ 0Ų ŠPersia,€and€advance€into€Bactria€and€the€India.€Barry€GillsŠ ¬ Š(l990)€suggests€that€Alexander€the€Great€married€Roxane€inŠ Ų€  ŠBactria€as€part€of€his€project€to€unite€a€vast€and€long€sinceŠ ¬T! Šcommercially€and€politically€key€area€under€the€political€ruleŠ €(" Šof€a€"Johnny€come€lately"€outsider.€Arrian,€the€chronicler€ofŠ Tü# ŠAlexander,€€remarked€that€the€latter€"did€not€think€itŠ ( Š$ Šderogatory€to€his€dignity€to€marry€her"€(quoted€in€Franck€andŠ ü ¤% ŠBrownstone€l988:€77).€As€Frank€Holt€(l988)€remarks€in€hisŠ Š!x& ŠņņAlexander€the€Great€and€Bactria:The€Formation€of€a€GreekŠ ¤"L ' ŠFrontier€in€Central€Asiaóó:ņņŠ x# !( Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąóóBactria€was€already€known€as€a€worthy€prize€by€the€lateŠ  %Č"* Šfourth€century€B.C.€€Material€finds€prove€that€this€much,Š ō%œ#+ Šat€least,€was€so:€it€was€an€ancient€region€of€cities€andŠ Č&p$, Ša€hub€of€trade€no€matter€what€people€were€responsible€forŠ œ'D%- Šthe€'miracle'....€Archeology€leaves€no€question€about€theŠ p(&. Šadvanced€state€of€Bactria's€cultural€and€commercialŠ D)ģ&/ Šdevelopment€during€the€centuries€preceding€Alexander'sŠ *Ą'0 Šinvasion....€On€the€basis€of€this€evidence,€it€is€clearŠ ģ*”(1 Šthat€Bactria€occupied€a€prominent€place€in€the€empire€ofŠ Ą+h)2 Šthe€Achaemenid€Kings,€and€was€perhaps€the€key€satrapy€onŠ ”,<*3 Šthe€eastern€frontier.€Cyrus'€conquest€and€Darius'Š h-+4 Šconsolidation€under€his€own€family€gave€this€region€aŠ <.ä+5 Šnotable€place€in€the€political€history€of€the€PersianŠ X Šempire,€while€Zoroaster's€legendary€activities€there€wereŠ ,Ō Šof€added€religious€significance€(Holt€1988:37,32,42)ŠØp(#p(# ŠĢą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąPlutarch's€'Alexander€miracle'€[which€ascribed€Bactria'sŠ |$ Šflorescence€to€Alexander's€arrival]€must€clearly€beŠ Pų Šrejected€as€no€more€than€a€return€to€Bactria's€ancientŠ $Ģ Šprosperity€once€the€region€had€recovered€from€the€turmoilŠ ų  Šof€Persia's€collapse.€Do€we€then€look€back€to€theŠ Ģ t  ŠAchaemenid€kings€for€a€'Persian€miracle'€in€Bactria?€ThisŠ   H  Šis€quite€possible,€although...there€is€growing€consensusŠ t   Šthat€Bactria€experienced€a€specifically€'BactrianŠ H š  Šmiracle'€„€a€local,€independent€evolution€into€a€powerfulŠ  Ä  Šand€prosperous€state€pre„dating€the€arrival€ofŠ š ˜  Šimperialist€forces€from€Mesopotamia€and€the€MediterraneanŠ Äl  Š(Holt€1988:€32).Š˜@ p(#p(# ŠĢThus,€the€Greek€Alexander€was€attracted€by€the€area's€alreadyŠ @č Špre„existing€structure€and€dynamic€of€economic€relations€amongŠ ¼ ŠCentral„,€South„€and€West€Asia,€North€Africa€and€SouthernŠ č ŠEurope.€Alexander's€untimely€death€spelled€the€failure€€of€hisŠ ¼d Šproject€and€the€subsequent€(re)regionalization€and€separationŠ 8 Šof€these€areas,€until€the€Romans€again€tried€something€similarŠ d  Šon€a€much€more€modest€scale.€Š 8ą ŠĢFrederick€Teggart€(l939)€examined€international€politicalŠ ąˆ Šeconomic€linkages€through€Central€Asia€for€the€Roman€period.Š “\ Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąIt€follows,€therefore,€that€knowledge€which€isŠ \ Šindispensable€for€an€historical€account€of€RomanŠ 0Ų Šaffairs...can€be€obtainedŠ¬p(#p(# Šą0 p ąin€no€other€way€than€by€the€comparison€of€eventsŠ Ų€  Šthroughout€Eurasia.€Thus,€apart€from€any€wider€interest,Š ¬T! Šthe€comparisons€of€histories€is€necessary€for€aŠ €(" Šcomprehension€of€what€has€actually€happened€within€theŠ Tü# Šborders€of€any€national€state€(p€243).Š( Š$p(#p(# ŠĢThus€Teggart€notes€thatŠ Š!x& ŠĢą0 p ąwhen€war€occurred€on€the€routes€in€the€Tarim€Basis,Š x# !( Šdisturbances€broke€out€in€Parthia€and€either€in€ArmeniaŠ L$ō!) Šor€on€the€border€of€Syria.€Evidently€then,€war€in€theŠ  %Č"* ŠTarim€Šō%œ#+p(#p(# Šą0 p ąoccasioned€an€interruption€of€traffic€on€the€silk€route,Š Č&p$, Šand€this€interruption€aroused€hostilities€at€points€alongŠ œ'D%- Šthe€route€as€far€west€as€the€Euphrates.€It€seems€highlyŠ p(&. Šprobable,€for€example,€that€the€invasions€of€Armenia€byŠ D)ģ&/ Šthe€Parthians,€while€Armenia€was€controlled€by€Rome,€wereŠ *Ą'0 Šinspired€by€the€suspicion€that€the€Romans€had€succeededŠ ģ*”(1 Šin€diverting€the€movement€of€commodities€from€CentralŠ Ą+h)2 ŠAsia€to€some€route€which€avoided€Parthian€territory.€ButŠ ”,<*3 Šthese€secondary€and€derivative€wars,€that€is,€theŠ h-+4 Šconflicts€between€Parthia€and€Rome€for€control€ofŠ <.ä+5 ŠArmenia,€brought€about€new€interruptions€of€trade€andŠ X Šthus€led€to€new€wars€in€more€and€more€distant€areas.€SoŠ ,Ō Šinterruptions€of€traffic€on€the€Black€Sea€stirred€upŠ Ø Špeoples€north€of€the€(lower)€Danube,€and€the€long€trainŠ Ō| Šof€disturbances€ended€finally€in€collisions€of€theŠ ØP Šbarbarians€with€the€Roman€legions€on€the€Rhine.Š |$ ŠConsequently€it€is€to€be€seen€that€peoples€in€no€wayŠ Pų Šconcerned€with€the€silk€route€might€yet€be€connected€withŠ $Ģ Šthe€interruptions€of€trade€on€that€route€through€theŠ ų  Šhostilities€which€the€interruptions€precipitated€betweenŠ Ģ t  ŠParthia€and€Rome€(Teggart€1939:€240„41).Š  H p(#p(# ŠĢĢTeggart€correlates€and€compares€the€timing€of€wars€andŠ  Ä  Šbarbarian€invasions€in€Rome€and€China€to€demonstrate€that€forŠ š ˜  Šthe€period€58€BC€to€107€AD€aloneŠ Äl  ŠĢą0 p ąeven€in€briefest€summary€it€must€be€pointed€out€that,€ofŠ l Šthe€wars€in€the€Roman€East,€eighteen€followed€wars€inŠ @č ŠChinese€Turkestan,€so€that€of€the€forty€occasions€onŠ ¼ Šwhich€outbreaks€took€place€in€Europe,€twenty„seven€wereŠ č Štraceable€to€the€policy,€or€rather€changes€of€policy,€ofŠ ¼d Šthe€Han€government€[in€China]€(ibid.€p.viii).Š8p(#p(# ŠĢTeggart€concluded€thatŠ 8ą Šą0 p ąą0Č p(#p(#ąŠ Č (#Č (# Šą0 p ąThus€the€effects€of€wars€which€arose€out€of€interruptionsŠ ąˆ Šof€€the€great€"silk€route"€through€Persia€are€plainlyŠ “\ Švisible€in€the€internal€history€of€Rome....SeeminglyŠ ˆ0 Šthere€could€be€no€better€illustration€of€interdependenceŠ \ Šof€nations€than€the€consideration€that€a€decision€of€theŠ 0Ų ŠChinese€government€should€have€been€responsible€for€aŠ ¬ Šfinancial€panic€in€the€capital€of€the€Roman€empire....Š Ų€  Š(ibid.€p.€x)Š¬T!p(#p(# ŠĢHowever,€even€Teggart€seems€to€have€considered€wars€and€otherŠ Tü# Špolitical€disturbances€more€as€the€ņņcauseóó€of€interruptions€ofŠ ( Š$ Štrade,€rather€than€€the€other€way€around.€Yet,€it€may€also€beŠ ü ¤% Šargued€with€equal€or€greater€reason€that€many€uprisings,€wars,Š Š!x& Šalliances€and€other€political€developments€were€themselvesŠ ¤"L ' Šstimulated€if€not€caused€by€changing€local,€regional,€or€evenŠ x# !( Šsystem€wide€economic€conditions€and€interests.€We€may€noteŠ L$ō!) Šhere€and€reconsider€the€implications€below€that€ņņboth€the€riseŠ  %Č"* Šand€then€again€the€declineóó€of€Han€China€(ņņandóó€their€CentralŠ ō%œ#+ ŠAsian€Hsiun„nu€Š Č&p$, Šneighbors),€Kushan€India,€Parthian€Persia,€and€WesternŠ œ'D%- ŠImperial€Rome€ņņoccurred€at€very€much€the€same€timeóó.€TheŠ p(&. Špolitical€economic€decline€of€these€empires€was€alsoŠ D)ģ&/ Šmanifested€in€the€notable€simultaneous€decline€of€CentralŠ *Ą'0 ŠAsian€and€maritime€trade€among€them.€There€is€archaeologicalŠ ģ*”(1 Ševidence€of€the€decline€and€desolation€at€the€same€time€of€aŠ Ą+h)2 Šwhole€string€of€cities€between€Kashgar€and€Bactria€and€also€inŠ ”,<*3 Šā āIndia.€The€4th€and€5th€centuries€AD€seem€to€have€been€a€periodŠ h-+4 Šof€major€Eurasian€(sytem)€wide€economic€and€poltical€decline,Š X Šindeed.Š ,Ō Šā āĢThen€from€the€mid€seventh€century€came€the€rise€and€expansionsŠ Ō| Šof€Taika€and€Nara€Japan,€Silla€Korea,€and€Tang€China€in€theŠ ØP ŠEast.€The€Chinese€and€the€Turks€expanded€westward,€theŠ |$ ŠTibetans€northward,€the€Muslims€eastward,€the€ScandinaviansŠ Pų Šsouthward,€and€the€Byzantines€consolidated€and€held€their€ownŠ $Ģ Šas€best€they€could.€Meanwhile,€Indian,€Persian,€and€Axum€powerŠ ų  Šin€East€Africa€declined€and/or€was€replaced€by€theseŠ Ģ t  Šexpansions€and€rivalries.€West€Europeans€languished€forŠ   H  Šanother€century€until€Charles€the€Great.€Is€it€likely€thatŠ t   Šthese€far€flung€developments€occurred€simultaneously€only€byŠ H š  Šhistorical€accident,€or€is€it€more€likely€that€they€were€"aŠ  Ä  Šsequence€of€repercussions€in€a€chain"€of€events€runningŠ š ˜  Šthrough€Central€Asia,€to€recall€Grousset's€terminology?€Š Äl  Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# ŠĢA€century€later,€as€Beckwith€(l977)€observes€€Š @č ŠĢą0 p ąthe€Eighth€century€saw€the€development€of€serious€crises,Š č Šand€major€economic,€political€and€cultural€changes,€inŠ ¼d Ševery€important€Eurasian€state.€Typologically€speaking,Š 8 Šthese€changes€followed€more€or€less€the€same€pattern,€dueŠ d  Šno€doubt€to€their,€common€origin€in€international,Š 8ą Šspecifically€economic€change,€of€a€fundamentalŠ  “ Šnature....The€great€crises€of€the€eighth€century€wereŠ ąˆ Šfollowed€by€absolutely€astonishing€economic€and€culturalŠ “\ Šgrowth€accross€Eurasia,€from€Japan€to€England.€TheŠ ˆ0 Šenormous€expansion€in€trade€brought€about€an€explosion€inŠ \ Šthe€growth€of€cities€and€market€towns€everywhere.€BesidesŠ 0Ų Šthe€huge€metropolises€of€Baghdad,€Constantinople,€andŠ ¬ ŠCh'ang„an,€the€old€[Central€Asian]€centers€of€SamarkandŠ Ų€  Šand€Khwarazam,€etc.,€there€were€fastgrowing€cities€whereŠ ¬T! Šonce€there€were€none:€Rasa,€Karabalgasum,€Rostov,Š €(" ŠQuentovic,€and€many€others.€The€internationalism€of€theŠ Tü# Šage€burst€into€full€bloom,€as€commerce€and€culture,€hand„Š ( Š$ Šin„hand,€flourished€as€never€before€(Beckwith€l977:€92„Š ü ¤% Š94).ŠŠ!x&p(#p(# ŠĢPrior€to€this€international€development,€however,€€there€wereŠ x# !( Šat€least€two€periods€„€in€the€mid€eighth€and€again€in€the€midŠ L$ō!) Šninth€centuries€„€in€which€major€political€crises€were€notŠ  %Č"* Šonly€nearly€simultaneous€but€very€probably€mutuallyŠ ō%œ#+ Šinterlinked€throughout€Eurasia€and€accross€Central€Asia.€AboutŠ Č&p$, Šthe€first€of€these€periods,€Beckwith€(l987)€observesŠ œ'D%- ŠĢą0 p ąIt€is€a€curious€fact€that,€unlike€the€preceding€andŠ D)ģ&/ Šfollowing€centuries,€the€middle€of€the€eighth€century€„Š *Ą'0 Šspecifically€the€period€742€to€755€„€saw€fundamentalŠ ģ*”(1 Šchanges,€usually€signalled€by€successful€politicalŠ Ą+h)2 Šrevolts,€in€every€Eurasian€empire.€Most€famous€among€themŠ ”,<*3 Šare€the€Carolignian,€Abbasid,€Uighur€Turkic,€and€anti„Š h-+4 ŠT'ang€rebellions€each€of€which€is,€rightly€considered€toŠ <.ä+5 Šhave€been€a€major€watershed€in€the€respective€nationalŠ X Šhistories.€Significantly,€all€seem€to€have€beenŠ ,Ō Šintimately€connected€with€Central€Eurasia€(Beckwith€l987:Š Ø Š192).ŠŌ|p(#p(# ŠĢA€major€event€of€this€period€in€the€history€of€Central€AsiaŠ |$ Šand€a€turning€point€in€the€history€of€the€world€was€theŠ Pų Šreversal€of€Tang€Chinese€expansion€in€Asia€at€the€battle€atŠ $Ģ Šthe€Talas€river€in€751.€The€Arab€Muslims€and€the€TurksŠ ų  Šcombined€forces€and€defeated€the€Tang€General€Kao€Sien„chiŠ Ģ t  Š(lent€to€the€Chinese€by€the€then€flowering€Silla€kingdom€inŠ   H  ŠKorea).€He€had€previously€led€the€Chinese€expansion€intoŠ t   ŠCentral€Asia€during€two€victorious€campaigns€accross€theŠ H š  ŠPamirs€and€into€Kushan.€The€same€year,€the€new€KitaiŠ  Ä  Šconfederacy€defeated€the€Chinese€in€their€northeast;€and€aŠ š ˜  ŠChinese€expedition€to€the€southwest€into€Yunnan€failed.€FourŠ Äl  Šyears€later€in€755,€began€the€major€eight€year€long€internalŠ ˜@  Šrebellion€against€Tang€rule€led€by€An€Lu„shan.€He€was€the€sonŠ l Šof€a€Sogdian€merchant€and€an€also€Central€Asian€woman,€who€wasŠ @č Šadopted€by€a€royal€concubine.€€The€rebellion€was€put€down€withŠ ¼ ŠUighur€help€from€Central€Asia.€Nonetheless,€Tang€power€and€theŠ č Šregime€of€the€Tang€Dynasty€never€really€recovered€from€thisŠ ¼d Šexternal€defeat€at€Talas€River€in€751€€and€the€internal€Lu„Š 8 Šshan€rebellion€from€755€to€763.€The€weakened€Tang€Dynasty€hungŠ d  Šon€until€907,€after€another€major€rebellion€from€874€and€883.Š 8ą ŠChina€lost€all€its€western€territories€again;€and€the€TurksŠ  “ Šand€much€of€Central€Asia€„€eventually€right€up€to€the€GreatŠ ąˆ ŠWall€of€China€„€became€Muslim.€Š “\ ŠĢIn€the€course€of€the€four€years€838€to€842€during€the€secondŠ \ Šperiod€mentioned€above,€Beckwith€(l977)€notes€that€in€the€WestŠ 0Ų Šthe€trade€route€between€the€Volga€and€the€Baltic€was€closed€inŠ ¬ Š838€(not€to€reopen€for€another€generation),€and€the€FrankishŠ Ų€  ŠEmpire€broke€up€in€840.€In€the€East,€the€Uighur€Empire€fell€toŠ ¬T! Šthe€Kirghiz€in€840,€the€Tibetan€Empire€was€split€up€in€842,Š €(" Šand€the€same€year€began€the€open€persecution€of€Buddhism€andŠ Tü# Šthen€of€other€foreign€religions€in€China.€At€the€same€timeŠ ( Š$ Š(after€the€Arab„Byzantine€war€of€837„42€and€TurkishŠ ü ¤% Šexpansion),€the€last€Caliph€in€Baghdad€began€the€persecutionŠ Š!x& Šof€heretics€under€Islamic€rule.€€We€may€ask€again€whether€itŠ ¤"L ' Šis€likely€that€these€political€and€cultural€events€areŠ x# !( Šentirely€responses€to€"internal"€pressures€that€are€unrelatedŠ L$ō!) Što€each€other.€Or€were€they€also€related€to€each€other€and€toŠ  %Č"* Šeconomic€problems€or€even€crisis,€which€was€common€to€them€allŠ ō%œ#+ Šand/or€transmitted€through€Central€Asia?€€We€will€never€know€„Š Č&p$, Šunless€we€ask!€Š œ'D%- ŠĢKwanten€(l979:53)€suggests€that€at€least€the€decline€of€TangŠ D)ģ&/ Špower€and€the€simultaneous€collapse€of€the€Tibetan€empire€Š *Ą'0 Šmade€geopolitical€economic€space€for€Uighur€expansion€east€andŠ ģ*”(1 Šwest.€Then€Š Ą+h)2 Šą0 p ąŠ p(#p(# Šą0 p ąthe€Kan„chou€Uighurs€established€themselves€on€CentralŠ h-+4 ŠAsia's€principal€trade€routes€and€were€soon€in€control€ofŠ <.ä+5 Šthe€trade.€They€were€bent€on€continuing€friendlyŠ X Šrelations€with€China€[against€Chinese€demurral€duringŠ ,Ō Štheir€own€difficulties]...€It€was€not€until€the€creationŠ Ø Šof€the€Later€T'ang€dynasty€(923„936)€that€relations€wereŠ Ō| Šresumed€on€a€regular€basis€ad€trade€and€diplomaticŠ ØP Šexchanges€were€revived.€The€Uighurs€became€China'sŠ |$ Šprincipal€foreign€traders,€selling€primarily€horses,Š Pų Šjade,€and€other€precious€materials€and€acquiringŠ $Ģ Šprimarily€silk€in€return€(Kwanten€1979:€53).Šų p(#p(# ŠĢą0 p ąThe€Uighurs€understood€the€importance€of€the€ChineseŠ   H  Šconnection€and€immediately€€replaced€the€Turks€upon€theirŠ t   Šdefeat.€By€aiding€the€T'ang€against€rebels,€theyŠ H š  Špreserved€the€dynasty€while€at€the€same€time€terrifyingŠ  Ä  Šit....€The€Uighurs€were€vastly€more€successful€than€theŠ š ˜  ŠTurks€in€running€a€steppe€empire,€although€theirŠ Äl  Šconquests€were€not€as€extensive.€This€was€due€in€largeŠ ˜@  Šmeasure€to€the€stability€of€their€imperialŠ l Šgovernment....They€ruled€their€empire€from€a€permanentŠ @č Šcity€[Karabalghasun]...founded€and€maintained€byŠ ¼ Šinternational€trade....€Like€the€imperial€confederacyŠ č Šitself,€it€grew€as€a€result€of€the€extortion€of€theŠ ¼d ŠChinese€economy.€It€was€the€flower€of€a€plant€that€hadŠ 8 Šits€root€in€[the€Tang€capital]€Ch'ang„an€(Barfield€1989:Š d  Š154„58).Š8ąp(#p(# ŠĢą0 p ą[However]€the€model€for€the€city€was€not€Chinese€butŠ ąˆ ŠSogdian....The€Sogdians€controlled€the€oases€ofŠ “\ ŠTurkestan.€They€were€famous€as€merchants€and€hadŠ ˆ0 Šestablished€trading€communities€in€China....TheseŠ \ Šmerchants€were€also€in€a€position€to€act€as€buyers€ofŠ 0Ų Šextorted€silk€and€other€goods€for€trade€with€the€west.Š ¬ ŠMoreover€the€nomads€controlled€most€of€the€territoryŠ Ų€  Šlinking€the€Iranian€world€with€China.€Therefore€in€orderŠ ¬T! Što€conduct€the€caravan€trade€it€was€necessary€toŠ €(" Šestablish€cordial€relations€with€the€steppeŠ Tü# Štribes....Both€groups€held€that€trade€was€a€vitalŠ ( Š$ Šresource€(ibid.€158).€€Šü ¤%p(#p(# ŠĢIt€is€inescapable€therefore€that€the€study€of€these€and€otherŠ ¤"L ' Šinter"national"€connections€in€and€through€Central€Asia€areŠ x# !( Šessential€for€the€reconstruction€and€understanding€€of€theŠ L$ō!) Šhistory€of€all€Afro„Eurasia€and€of€each€of€its€never€separateŠ  %Č"* Šparts.€ForŠ ō%œ#+ ŠĢą0 p ąeven€a€cursory€examination€of€the€major€Arabic€andŠ œ'D%- ŠChinese€sources€for€the€period€(Tabari€and€Ssu„ma€Kuang,Š p(&. Šrespectively)€reveals€that€Central€Eurasia€was€theŠ D)ģ&/ Šoverwhelming€focus€of€Arab€and€€Chinese€foreign€policyŠ *Ą'0 Šand€the€source€of€strong€cultural€influences€on€them.Š ģ*”(1 ŠThere€should€be€little€doubt€that€Central€Eurasia€was€aŠ Ą+h)2 Šmost€influential€factor€in€the€history€of€the€earlyŠ ”,<*3 Šā āmedieval€empires.€Scholars€of€earlier€generations€hadŠ h-+4 Šgood€reason€to€look€to€that€region€for€their€"missingŠ X Šlink"€in€world€history€(Beckwith€1987€193„94).Š,Ōp(#p(# Šā āĢIn€Gills€and€Frank€(l990b)€and€in€the€final€section€of€thisŠ Ō| Špaper€below,€I€inquire€whether€this€world€history,€at€least€inŠ ØP Šits€Afro„Eurasian€"old"€world€"eastern€hemisphere,"€may€notŠ |$ Šhave€presented€itself€as€a€long€world€system€cycle,€withinŠ Pų Šwhich€Central€Asia€was€indeed€the€missing€link.Š $Ģ ŠĢĢņņWorld€System€Capital€Accumulation,€Core„Periphery,€Hegemony„Š   H  ŠRivalry,€Cyclesóóņ ņ€ņņó óand€Central€Asiaóó€Š t   ŠĢThere€has€been€much€recent€work€on€the€modern€world€systemŠ ( Š  Šsince€1500€by€Wallerstein€and€some€on€its€extension€backwardŠ ü ¤  Što€5000€years€of€world€system€history€by€Gills€and€myselfŠ Šx  Š(Gills€and€Frank€1990a,b,€Frank€1990€a,b,c,€1991).€All€thisŠ ¤L  Šwork€focuses€1.€on€the€process€of€capital€accumulation€as€theŠ x  Šprincipal€motor€force€of€world€system€development.€It€alsoŠ Lō Šdistinguishes€three€principal€features€of€world€systemŠ  Č Šstructure€and€process:€2.€core„periphery€structure,€3.Š ōœ Šalternations€of€hegemony€and€rivalry,€and€4.€cycles€ofŠ Čp Šascending€(A)€and€descending€(B)€phases€in€the€same.€€IŠ œD Šsuggest€that€these€same€systemic€features€may€also€be€usefulŠ p Šfor€the€analysis€of€the€historical€place€and€role€of€CentralŠ Dģ ŠAsia€in€the€world€system.Š Ą ŠĢņ ņ1.ó ó€ņ ņCapital€accumulationó ó€on€a€world€scale€seems€to€have€beenŠ Ąh Šcentral€to€the€operation€of€the€world€system€as€a€whole,€evenŠ  H Šif€it€did€not€always€seem€so€for€some€of€its€parts.€ForŠ t Šinstance,€it€has€often€been€observed€that€it€was€difficult€ifŠ Hš Šnot€impossible€to€accumulate€much€capital€in€nomadic€pastoralŠ Ä Šsocieties.€Their€very€mobility€was€an€impediment,€and€theirŠ š˜  Šherds€only€permitted€limited€accumulation.€Perhaps,€but€weŠ Äl! Šhave€seen€that€many€of€these€societies€also€derived€muchŠ ˜@" Šincome,€and€were€able€to€accumulate€some€capital.€The€derivedŠ l# Šincome€from€trade€with€their€more€sedentary€neighbors€and€fromŠ @ č$ Šthe€caravans,€which€traversed€their€territory.€€Moreover,€forŠ !¼% Šthat€and€other€reasons€some€"nomadic"€societies€also€settledŠ č!& Šdown€for€extended€periods€at€least€in€part.€Furthermore,Š ¼"d ' ŠCentral€Asia€was€also€home€€not€only€to€many€semi„nomadicŠ #8!( Šsocieties,€but€also€to€city€and€other€states€in€oases€andŠ d$ ") Šother€fixed€locations.€They€also€produced,€traded€andŠ 8%ą"* Šaccumulated€on€bases€other€than€pastoralism.€Š  &“#+ ŠĢMost€significant€however€is€that€world€system€accumulationŠ “'\%- Šneed€not€have€taken€place€ņ ņin€ó ó€and€ņ ņbyó ó€Central€Asia€or€any€otherŠ ˆ(0&. Šregion.€For€a€particular€region€to€have€played€a€significantŠ h)'/ Šrole€in€the€process€as€a€whole€it€is€not€necessary€forŠ <*ä'0 Šaccumulation€to€take€place€ņ ņinó ó€the€region€itself.€It€is€enoughŠ +ø(1 Šfor€Central€Asia€to€have€been€contributory€to€or€instrumentalŠ š+˜)2 Šin€accumulation€ņ ņelsewhereó ó!€Š Ä,l*3 ŠŠ ¤-L+4 ŠMy€argument€in€this€paper€is€that€Central€Asia€did€participateŠ X Šin€important€ways€in€the€system€wide€process€of€capitalŠ ,Ō Šaccumulation.€This€was€implicit€in€the€previous€questions€/€Š Ø Štentative€answers,€and€I€want€to€make€it€explicit€here.€Š Ō| ŠHowever,€this€capital€was€accumulated€primarily€in€and€to€theŠ ØP Šbenefit€of€outlying€"civilized"€sedentary€societies.€TheŠ |$ Šstandard€assumption€about€the€latter€has€been€that€theirŠ Pų Šaccumulation€and€their€very€"civilization"€was€derivedŠ $Ģ Šexclusively€from€their€own€"internal"€agricultural€and€otherŠ ų  Šproduction.€€Indeed,€it€has€often€been€argued€that€theŠ Ģ t  Šsedentary€societies€had€no€use€for€trade€and€other€relationsŠ   H  Šwith€their€neighbors€in€Central€Asia.€This€has€been€theŠ t   Šargument€by€the€Chinese€themselves€and€by€those€who€observedŠ H š  Šthem€from€afar.€This€argument€is€still€partly€accepted€andŠ  Ä  Šrepeated€even€by€such€astute€recent€observers€as€BarfieldŠ š ˜  Š(l989).€Yet€I€believe€that€it€is€belied€by€many€facts,Š Äl  Šincluding€even€those€few€that€were€tentatively€presentedŠ ˜@  Šearlier€in€this€paper.€The€tandem€and€symbiotic€relationsŠ l Šbetween€Central€Asia€and€their€outlying€"civilized"€neighborsŠ @č Šalso€contributed€significantly€to€their€accumulation€ofŠ ¼ Šcapital€and€civilization.€These€relations€were€"necessary"€toŠ č Štheir€development,€at€least€as€it€historically€did€occur.Š ¼d ŠĢņ ņ2ó ó.€ņ ņThe€core„periphery€structureó ó€is€often€also€called€"center„Š d  Šperiphery."€It€is€extended€to€"semi„periphery"€by€WallersteinŠ Dģ Šand€to€the€"hinterland"€by€Gills€and€Frank€(1990).€In€theŠ Ą Špresent€context,€I€prefer€to€use€the€word€"core"€to€avoidŠ ģ” Šconfusion€with€€my€other€uses€of€the€term€"center"€in€CentralŠ Ąh ŠAsia€and€its€centrality€in€the€world€system.€Rowlands,€LarsenŠ ”< Šand€Kristiansen€(1987)€have€already€inquired€into€ņņCentre€andŠ h ŠPeriphery€in€the€Ancient€Worldóó.€They€review€and€applyŠ <ä Š"dependency€and€world€systems€theory€...to€stimulate€thinkingŠ ø Šin€archaeological€and€historical€research"€(p.11).€ReferringŠ äŒ  Što€ancient€Assyria,€Rowlands€(p.€9)€notes€that€"the€functionŠ ø`! Šof€a€periphery€is€to€serve€its€cosmological€centre€to€assureŠ Œ4" Šits€proper€functioning"€so€€that€"in€other€words€the€relationŠ `# Šbetween€centre€and€periphery€is€organic...[and€not]Š 4 Ü$ Šmechanistic."€Š !°% ŠĢRowlands€et€al€€concentrate€on€Mesopotamia€and€Western€Asia,Š °"X ' Šbut€they€and€we€also€extended€the€same€into€Central€Asia€andŠ „#,!( Šits€relations€with€its€neighbors.€€However,€Rowlands€et€al,Š X$") Šand€among€them€especially€Philip€Kohl,€see€multiple€cores,Š ,%Ō"* Šeach€with€its€own€periphery,€no€single€Bronze€Age€worldŠ &Ø#+ Šsystem,€and€instead€a€patchwork€of€overlapping€and€constantlyŠ Ō&|$, Šshifting€world€systems€withou