ÿWPC¾ þcxûiHSÉ¥,£¨÷fƙۓ[1m&‚€s“ùw6•ì?ºÊ¦"4q8Œý{è¨ÊÒŽšV ‹½“|»Ç¢O©IÑ{úxÚòÆ÷At~>ðó# 7`ñÍZ;“Íwû(Ãm+‹ìi I*)ï8ØÐÎV¨I¿røwMP€£v21£î¤1k‘­M–Æ[Â(sQäy” Unw6žÚlÔ!:ïFgÙàzOÍâ‡çΙ©< NŠï¦Ì˜Á—£P[”³«¢¦©Eg?[ÛMv*õI¾2GÛÑ™~}‰Ä˳¥€:ƒ6°“_BßûÎA׿zŒ{º03æe7‡sçÞà/œÑ¿RIÀ…#¿Àœ-”‹Ëö`ÀL‹7p<¤U#ó0s±Ù¿^>ñ¦ªZ&0 ã/£»ðÕ‹ûx4H~Ý\|™™¸¼}{½d,Vç§ñzòŒ³î»ü‰ Pˆy‚“‘#‰.NrpÞS ÐÉ5Ðz˜7Ä8ùBÓ +Ì>k=^éÖÂXÇŽBú2"Q½Fl+pݪ·{FÄîÕ8 …–¶}L®À‚´ò¤ùFUS vw«]@ºI¯d.ósm°¿ús®ÒŽ%¬ÿÊX »ë/ ç'`9qX™-/œU:Òn­  %¹ 0$¿ã 0£ó#Á–(WN^ w4‘¥ m§<þ6X9`("Courier 10cpi«<þ6X9`("Courier 10cpiXÂxþ6X@É“8Ç;X@X$ÿÿ"|x ({§$¡¡Ñ  ÑÓ  ÓÑX°ÑÑX°ÑÑ8€^zXXdÔXXdì8ÑÒ°Ò˜HP DeskJet 600 (Monochrome)È°,,,,È°0!¨M!+ ˜*1ð¤ÌÁ©ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÝ ƒ§!ÝÑ  ÑÓ  ÓÑX°ÑÑX°ÑÑ8€^zXXdÔXXdì8ÑÒ°ÒÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ  ÑÌ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€ANDRE€Ô_ÔGUNDERÔ_Ô€FRANKÐ ,Ô Ѐ€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€University€of€AmsterdamÐ ¨ ÐH.€Ô_ÔBosmansstraatÔ_Ô€57€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€€TEL€Home:€31„20„664€6607Ð Ô| Ð1077€Ô_ÔXGÔ_Ô€Amsterdam,€Netherlands€€€€€€€€FAX€Home:€31„20„676€4432Ð ¨P Ðe„mail:€gunderfrank@alf.let.uva.nl€€€€FAX€Univ:€31„20„620€3226Ð |$ ÐIF€HOME€FAX€NOT€Ô_ÔANSWER,CALLÔ_Ô€HOME€TEL€Ô_ÔEUROPÔ_Ô€Ô_ÔDAYTIME,ORÔ_Ô€FAX€Ô_ÔUNIVÔ_ÔÐ Pø ÐÌà0 p àà0È p(#p(#àà0 È (#È (#àà0x (# (#àà0Ðx(#x(#àà0(Ð(#Ð(#à9€November€1992€Second€DraftÐø ((#((# ÐÌà0 p àTHE€BRONZE€AGE€WORLD€SYSTEM€AND€ITS€CYCLES€Ð  H p(#p(# ÐÌà0 p àà0È p(#p(#àà0 È (#È (#àà0x (# (#àà0Ðx(#x(#àbyÐH ð Ð(#Ð(# ÐÌà0 p àà0È p(#p(#àà0 È (#È (#àAndre€Ô_ÔGunderÔ_Ô€FrankÐð ˜  (# (# Ðà0 p àà0È p(#p(#àà0 È (#È (#àUniversity€of€AmsterdamÐÄl  (# (# ÐÌThe€purpose€of€this€essay€is€to€explore€the€geographicalÐ l Ðextent€of€the€world€system€and€to€date€its€long€cyclical€upsÐ @è Ðand€downs€through€time€during€the€Bronze€Age.€I€also€extendÐ ¼ Ðthe€same€in€a€preliminary€way€to€the€early€Iron€Age.€Though€IÐ è Ðhere€wish€to€limit€my€purview€primarily€to€these€twin€tasks€ofÐ ¼d Ðexploration€and€dating,€their€scope€will€be€exceptionally€wideÐ 8 Ðand€deep:€It€is€wide€in€exploring€a€single€world€system,€whichÐ d  Ðencompasses€a€vast€and€expanding€area€in€much€of€Afro„Eurasia.Ð 8à ÐThe€scope€also€digs€deep€into€the€past€to€pursue€system„wideÐ  ´ Ðlong€economic€and€political€cycles€over€a€period€of€over€5,000Ð àˆ Ðyears€back€through€the€3rd€millennium€and€perhaps€into€the€4thÐ ´\ Ðmillennium€BC€of€the€Bronze€Age.Ð ˆ0 ÐÌParticipation€or€not€in€this€world€system€and€the€differencesÐ 0Ø Ðbetween€confronting€a€phase€of€long€economic€expansion€or€ofÐ ¬ Ðlong€economic€slowdown€and€crisis€made€vital€differences.€TheР؀  Ðworld€system€and€its€cycles€vitally€defined€the€economic,Ð ¬T! Ðpolitical€and€cultural€opportunities€or€limitations€faced€byÐ €(" Ðregions,€peoples€and€their€political€institutions€and€leaders.Ð Tü# ÐAn€analogy€might€be€the€differences€in€the€chances€and€fatesÐ ( Ð$ Ðof€passengers,€crew€and€captains€of€ships€on€a€big€world€oceanÐ ü ¤% Ðor€on€a€small€sea€and€in€the€different€cyclical€phases€of€fairÐ Ð!x& Ðweather€or€foul/storms.€Cyclically€alternating€global€warmingÐ ¤"L ' Ðor€ice€ages€with€their€respective€ecological€and€climacticÐ x# !( Ðchanges€probably€also€affected€economic€and€political€cyclesÐ L$ô!) Ðand€fortunes.€Still€today,€a€rising€economic€sea€lifts€mostÐ  %È"* Ðboats€even€if€some€capsize.€A€receding€world€economic€tide€orÐ ô%œ#+ Ðstormy€weather€sinks€many€more€ships€of€state,€theirÐ È&p$, Ðpassengers€and€their€governing€captains€„„€as€recentlyÐ œ'D%- Ðmanifest€in€the€Soviet€Union€and€Eastern€Europe€and€even€inÐ p(&. ÐGeorge€Bush's€United€States.€However,€the€same€crisisÐ D)ì&/ Ðgenerated€decline€of€hegemonic€powers€in€the€world€system€alsoÐ *À'0 Ðoffers€new€opportunities€to€[literal]€upstarts€elsewhere.€Ð ì*”(1 ÐÌI€hope€that€in€this€historical€review€below€the€reader€willÐ ”,<*3 Ð"see"€that€political€economic€fortunes€and€hegemonic€rivalryÐ h-+4 Ðand€its€outcomes€were€already€vitally€affected€also€byÐ <.ä+5  ÐÔ_Ôparticipation€in€the€world€system€and€its€long€economic€upsÐ X Ðand€downs€in€the€Bronze€Age.€Therefore,€just€to€outline€theÐ ,Ô Ðextent€of€the€world€system€and€to€identify€its€cyclical€longÏup€and€down€phases€is€already€a€big€and€important€enough€task.€Therefore,€detailed€demonstration€of€how€and€why€the€systemÏticked€and€made€or€unmade€people's€chances€to€pursue€theirÏfortunes€is€left€for€another€time€and/or€to€others€moreÏqualified€than€the€present€author.ÌÌòòMethodological€IntroductionÌóó€ÌIt€may€be€useful€therefore€to€attempt€to€ward€off€someÏmisunderstanding€by€stating€at€the€outset€what€is€and€is€notÏproposed€here€ò òòòóóó óand/or€to€anticipate€and€answer€some€objectionsÏto€both.€Indeed,€some€of€these€objections€have€already€beenÏvoiced€by€friends€who€have€read€earlier€drafts.€The€firstÏobjection€may€be€that€it€is€impossible€to€accomplish€the€taskÏ[as]€set€out€and€foolhardy€even€to€try.€In€particular,€it€mayÏbe€rightly€argued€that€I€lack€the€professional€training€orÏexperience€in€archaeology€and€history€for€this€task€and€that€IÏhave€insufficient€„„€or€indeed€no€„„€knowledge€of€the€area,Ïperiod,€materials,€and€problems€and€pitfalls€of€their€study.ÏMy€use€or€citation€of€this€or€that€fact,€source€and/orÏ"authority"€may€also€appear€objectionable€on€the€grounds€that,Ïsupposedly€or€perhaps€even€really€unbeknownst€to€me,€it€orÏs/he€[eg.€Gordon€Childe]€has€been€disqualified€by€"theÏprofession."€€Often€however,€this€supposed€disqualification€isÏreally€unrelated€to€the€legitimate€use€to€which€I€wish€put€theÏcited€information€or€opinion€in€support€of€my€argument.€ÌÌAnother€objection€or€perhaps€another€version€of€the€sameÏobjection€is€that€even€the€best€archaeologists€and€historiansÏtoday€lack€the€necessary€factual€evidence€and€analyticalÏmethods€to€establish€or€even€indicate€the€extent€of€such€aÏBronze€Age€world€system€and€the€timing€of€any€such€cycles,€ifÏany.€And€ò òtható ó€is€why€they€did€not€and€will€not€try.€My,Ïperhaps€insufficient,€answer€is€that€ignorant€"fools€rush€inÏwhere€[professionally€knowledgeable]€angles€fear€to€tread."€ItÏis€not€that€I€[can]€claim€to€know€better;€but€perhaps€inÏknowing€less€also€of€the€obstacles,€and€in€bringing€theÏ"innocence€"€fresh€and€unencumbered€perspective€of€an€outsiderÏto€the€task,€I€am€more€willing€and€perhaps€even€able€to€try.ÏThus,€I€make€bold€to€propose€a€new€outline€of€the€world€systemÏand€older€datings€of€its€cyclical€rhythm€than€others€haveÏheretofore.€€In€doing€so€however,€I€can€challenge€others€moreÏcompetent€than€I€to€test€and€revise€my€tentative€findings€andÏpropositions,€which€they€have€not€been€foolhardy€enough€evenÏto€set€out.€ÌÌA€second€objection€will€be€that€there€was€no€ò òoneó ó€world€systemÏin€the€Bronze€Age,€but€if€any,€then€many.€Yes€and€No.€Even€byÏthe€criteria€of€participation€in€a€single€system€that€I€shallÏset€out€below,€there€probably€were€several€such€"systems"€inÏBronze€Age€and€also€later€times;€and€€certainly,€none€of€themÏwere€world„encompassing.€However,€I€will€review€some€of€theÏalso€increasing€evidence€and€analysis€that€ò òoneó ó€such€worldÏsystem€€did€unite€a€vast€array€of€regions€and€peoples€in€aÏcommon€historical€process.€Apparently€this€"world€system"€wasÏcentered€in/on€West/Central€Asia€and€the€EasternÏMediterranean/€North€Africa€but€extended€far€beyond€that.ÏMoreover,€it€was€this€"Central€World€System"€that€expanded€eventually€to€"incorporate"€all€the€rest€of€the€world€into€aÏworld€system€that€now€does€include€one€and€all.€ÌÌA€third€objection€will€be€that,€even€if€the€existence€of€suchÏa€"world€system"€as€early€as€the€Bronze€Age€were€admissible,Ïit€could€hardly€have€experienced€simultaneous€cyclical€phasesÏof€rapid€economic€expansion€and€subsequent€contraction€orÏslower€growth,€which€were€system„wide.€€Yes€and€No,€again.ÏEven€today€some€economic€sectors€[microelectronics,Ïbiogenetics]€and€regions€[in€East€Asia]€are€out€of€step€orÏphase€with€the€present€world€wide€economic€crisis.€Yet,Ïespecially€as€I€write€in€1992,€only€an€ostrich€like€head„in„¼the„sand€view€can€deny€that€there€ò òis€ó óaò ò€ó óworldò ò€ó ósystem€wideÏcrisis€today.€I€shall€marshall€evidence€below€that€somethingÏanalogous€at€least€can€be€identified€also€as€far€back€as€theÏearly€Bronze€Age.€ÌÌOther€objections€can€focus€on€my€failure€below€to€pursueÌrelated€inquiries€into€more€conventional€questions,€such€asÏecology,€technology,€state€formation,€class€structure,Ïlanguage,€race,€culture€and€religion,€etc.€At€a€time€of€nearlyÏworld„widespread€affirmations€and€increasing€"cleansing"€ofÏparticular€"ethnicity"€and€diversity,€a€statement€of€worldÏsystem€unity€in€diversity€may€also€seem€"politicallyÏincorrect"€and€objectionable€to€committed€activists.€SocialÏtheorists€may€find€especially€lacking€a€theoretical€analysisÏof€how€and€why€the€relations€among€all€of€these€and€otherÏfactors€"make€the€system€tick."€€I€do€not€deny€the€importanceÏof€these€and€other€"internal/local/national/€societal,"Ïinstitutional,€cultural€and€€"voluntarist/agency"€factors.ÏHowever,€those€who€emphasize€or€rely€on€them€in€practice€andÏtheory€to€the€exclusion€of€the€real€world€systemic€andÏcyclical€"outside"€forces€beyond€them€do€so€at€their€peril.ÏThat€is€because€the€latter€also€determine€the€opportunitiesÏand€limitations€of€the€conventionally€more€considered€ones.ÏTherefore€on€this€occasion,€all€these€and€other€moreÏ"conventional"€socio„political€and€cultural€concerns€andÏtheoretical€problems€will€be€only€touched€on€in€the€textÏand/or€relegated€to€at€best€some€suggestive€questions€andÏanswers€in€the€conclusion.ÌÌNonetheless,€I€shall€begin€with€a€brief€attempt€to€place€theÏpresent€inquiry€in€the€context€of,€and€to€take€position€in,Ïò òsomeó ó€ongoing€discussions.€One€of€these€discussions€is€aboutÏthe€nature€of€and/or€the€appropriate€approach€to€the€study€ofÏthe€"ancient€economy,"€in€which€primitivists€andÏsubstantivists€have€locked€horns€for€generations€withÏmodernists€and€formalists.€The€maybe€"economicistic"€seemingÏapproach€used€here€may€perhaps€appear€more€defensible€byÏplacing€it€within€this€discussion.€A€second€discussion€is€theÏmore€recent€one€on€whether€there€is€a€"world€system"€[with€orÏwithout€a€hyphen€between€world„and„system]€or€whether€thereÏwere€several€such,€and€how€to€study€the€same.€A€brief€reviewÏof€this€discussion€will€also€offer€occasion€to€set€out€theÏcriteria€of€the€existence€of€and€participation€in€this€worldÏsystem€below.€A€third€"discussion"€focuses€more€narrowly€onÏprevious€versions€of€the€"5,000€Year€World€System"€thesis€asÏadvanced€by€Barry€Gills€and€myself€and€the€controversy€and€independent€attempts€at€empirically€grounded€tests€of€our€longÏcycle€datings,€which€this€thesis€has€so€far€elicited.€ThisÏthesis€was€advanced€particularly€under€the€titles€"TheÏCumulation€of€Accumulation"€(Gills€and€Frank€1990/91)€andÏ"World€System€Cycles,€Crises€and€Hegemonic€Shifts€1700BC€toÏ1700€AD"€(Gills€and€Frank€1992).€As€I€will€explicate€below,Ïthe€present€essay€is€largely€a€re„run€extension€of€this€lastÏnamed€essay€and€a€revision€based€on€empirical€"tests"€of€itsÏcycle€datings€and€additional€evidence€and€for€the€Bronze€Age,Ïwith€a€brief€"preview"€to€the€Iron€Age.€However,€I€also€try€toÏpush€the€identification€of€this€same€succession€of€cycles€moreÏthan€another€millennium€backwards€through€the€third€and€intoÏthe€fourth€millennium€BC.€ÌÌHard€evidence€on€such€[system]€wide„spread€alternating€phasesÏof€more€rapid€economic€expansion€and€slower€expansion,Ïcontraction€and/or€crisis€is,€of€course,€hard€to€come€by.€ToÏmy€knowledge,€prior€to€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)€and€my€presentÏrenewed€effort,€no€one€has€previously€even€attempted€any€suchÏassembly€of€such€evidence€as€that€presented€below.€For€"A"Ïphase€economic€upswings,€I€use€and€correlate€evidence€or€atÏleast€statements€regarding€various€regions€in€Eurasia€ofÏeconomic€expansion€of€production€and/or€trade,€of€populationÏgrowth,€and€increase€in€city€size,€even€of€more€diplomaticÏmissions,€etc.€Conversely,€for€"B"€phase€economic€downswingsÏor€crises,€I€seek€evidence€or€statements€of€absolutely€orÏrelatively€reduced€production€and€/or€trade,€populationÏdecline€or€reduced€growth,€decline€in€city€size€or€urbanÏdesolation€and/or€desertion.€€I€use€such€evidence€aboutÏdifferent€regions€and€from€various€sources€and€then€try€toÏcorrelate€it€over€time€and€space.€ÌÌFor€instance,€I€will€draw€on€"tests"€of€the€Gills€and€FrankÏ(1992)€dating€of€cyclical€up€and€down€phases,€which€wereÏindependently€prepared€by€two€other€authors,€who€used€changesÏin€city€size€data.€However€welcome€these€are,€nonethelessÏtheir€reliability€may€be€compromised€by€1.€my€ownÏinterpretation€of€2.€their€interpretation€of€3.€their€sourceÏChandler's€(1987)€interpretation€€of€4.€Chandler's€sources€ofÏcity€size€data,€which€are€5.€incomplete,€and€6.€may€beÏerroneous,€and€probably€contain€a€bias€of€recording€more€andÏgreater€city€sizes€in€West€Asia€than€in€East€Asia,€and€all€ofÏwhich€may€be€subject€to€still€other€unnamed€7€or€8€problems,Ïbeginning€with€using€this€ò òcity€sizeó ó€measure€because€it€is€moreÏreadily€available€rather€than€some€other€measures€because€theyÏare€not€[yet]€so.€Thus,€reliance€on€city€size€and€other€dataÏor€statements€is€not€meant€to€suggest€that€they€are€allÏdefinitively€reliable,€but€only€that€I€do€the€best€I€can€withÏevery€little€bit€that€may€help.ÌÌThus€more€often€than€not€also,€I€must€rely€on€ò òstatementsó ó€byÏothers€who€have€observed€economic€growth€or€decline€here€andÏthere;€and€then€I€compare,€contrast€and€combine€theseÏstatements€to€try€to€get€a€picture€of€a€more€world€system„wideÏpattern€and€sequence.€Sometimes,€direct€economic€evidence€ofÏexpansion€and/or€contraction€is€not€readily€available€to€me;Ïand€I€must€try€to€infer€it€from€recorded€social€or€politicalÏevents.€These€include€but€are€not€limited€to€the€rise€and€decline€of€empires,€"civilizations,"€political€in/stabilityÏand€war/peace,€hegemonic€power/intense€rivalry,€etc.€OfÏcourse,€the€evidence,€my€and€others'€interpretation€of€theÏsame,€€and€especially€my€inferences€are€open€to€doubt€andÏcritique€„„€and€to€improvement!ÌÌI€draw€on€this€information€below€in€the€attempt€toÏ[re]assemble€the€jig€saw€puzzle€picture€of€the€changing€extentÏand€cyclical€development€of€the€world€system€in€the€BronzeÏAge.€€However,€this€jigsaw€puzzle€assembly€differs€from€theÏusual€kind€in€several€ways€that€make€it€much€more€difficult:Ï1.€the€number€of€pieces€in€"the€box"€is€indeterminate,€indeedÏinfinite€[if€cut€small€enough];€and€it€is€possible€to€place€orÏassemble€only€a€few€of€them€here.€2.€There€is€no€originalÏdesign€or€intended€final€picture€on€top€of€"the€box"€to€guideÏthe€assembly.€3.€It€is€not€possible€to€follow€the€usual€easierÏprocedure€of€beginning€the€assembly€by€define€the€outer€marginÏof€the€picture€with€pieces€that€have€at€least€one€straightÏline.€In€this€case€on€the€contrary,€it€is€the€very€outerÏmargin€or€extension€of€the€world€system€that€is€most€difficultÏto€define.€Instead,€it€seems€easiest€to€begin€with€some€piecesÏthat€appear€to€be€in€the€better€known€"core."€4.€The€task€isÏnot€a€one€time€enterprise.€€The€shape€of€the€pieces€themselvesÏand€their€[core„periphery€and€hegemonic]€fit€with€theirÏneighbors€changes€constantly€over€time.€Perhaps€this€change€isÏnear„random;€perhaps€it€also€occurs€in€cycles€that€should€alsoÏbe€identified.€5.€One€the€principal€tasks,€indeed€the€mainÏintent€here€below,€is€to€[re]define€such€cycles.ÌÌOf€course,€our€picture€of€the€world€system€must€be€derivedÏfrom€survival€of€textual€and€the€excavation€of€archaeologicalÏevidence.€Of€course€also,€archaeologists€encounter€untoldÏdifficulties€in€constructing€a€general€picture€from€individualÏartifacts.€Especially€difficult€for€present€world„systemicÏpurposes€is€how€to€make€locally€found€artifacts€revealÏidentifiable€long„distance€connections€òòandóó€to€suggest€howÏimportant€or€persistent,€rather€than€justÏoccasional/ephemeral,€they€were.€Moreover,€beyond€the€vagariesÏof€what€did€and€did€not€survive,€the€pattern€of€archaeologicalÏdigs€and€their€analysis€is€also€a€function€of€our€ownÏcontemporary€economic,€cultural€and€political€vagaries.€Thus,ÏKohl€€(1984)€remarks,€for€instance,€on€the€Soviet€focus€onÏsites€rather€than€regions€[to€which€the€below€much€cited€E.N.ÏChernykh€is€a€remarkable€recent€exception]€and€theirÏpreferential€access€to€sites€on€the€territory€of€the€[former]ÏUSSR.€This€lets€regions€south€of€their€borders€fall€throughÏtoday's€political€economic€cracks€with€little€notice,€howeverÏimportant€their€participation€may€also€have€been€in€our€worldÏsystem.€Elsewhere€as€well,€contemporary€economic,€political,Ïcultural€or€other€reasons€result€in€some€historically€moreÏimportant€sites€being€less€or€not€at€all€explored,€compared€toÏothers€that€receive€more€attention€despite€having€lessÏhistorical€significance.€Another€source€of€bias€is€my€ownÏ"selection"€of€evidence.€Practically,€in€two€senses€of€theÏword,€my€selection€of€the€pieces€to€place€in€this€jig€sawÏpuzzle€are€largely€derived€from€the€documentation€byÏprofessionals,€which€my€friends€among€them€have€kindlyÏsupplied€to€me€of€their€own€and€other€writings.€[Eg.€Philip€Kohl€supplied€me€his€own€and€others'€still€unpublishedÏwritings€by€Hiebert€and€Lamberg„Karlovsky,€and€the€translationÏof€Chernykh's€book€from€the€Russian].€All€these€and€otherÏfactors€undoubtedly€introduce€gaps€and/or€distortions€into€theÏarchaeological€and€historical€record,€which€is€available€toÏmap€the€world€system€and€its€cycles€as€far€back€as€the€BronzeÏAge.€ÌÌMoreover,€my€own€puzzle[d?]€assembly€below€relies€more€onÏ"economic"€trade€based€than€"political"€warfare,€"social"Ïmigration,€and/or€"cultural"€diffusion€based€pieces€of€theÏjigsaw€puzzle.€Also,€the€archaeological€record,€or€at€leastÏthe€documentation€more€available€to€me,€€more€readily€permitsÏthe€assembly€of€jig€saw€puzzle€pieces€of€the€early€bronze€ageÏtrading€network/s€in€the€West€Asian€world€system.€Yet€evenÏthen,€only€very€few€of€these€pieces€can€be€assembled€here.€ÌÌòòThe€"Ancient€Economy"€Debateóó€ÌÌWe€may€distinguish€a€debate€about€the€"extent€of€the€market"Ï[to€recall€Adam€Smith's€phrase€that€related€it€to€theÏ"division€of€labor"]€in€ancient€economy.€A€related€discussionÏabout€the€applicability€"world€systems"€theory€or€concepts€toÏthis€economy€will€be€reviewed€later.€Other€recent€reviews€byÏKohl€(1989),€Edens€and€Kohl€(n.d.),€Woolf€(1990)€and€SherrattÏ(1991)€of€both€discussions€would€make€still€another€extensiveÏtreatment€of€the€same€here€superfluous.€Indeed,€theirs€wereÏreally€reviews€in€turn€of€already€lengthy€reviews€of€the€firstÏdebate€by€Silver€(1985)€and€others.€ÌÌIn€the€first€debate,€Edens€and€Kohl€distinguish€the€followingÏpositions:€Among€historians,€the€primitivists€like€Weber€[andÏmore€recently€Finley]€vs.€the€modernists€like€Meyer.€AmongÏanthropologists,€the€substantivists€headed€by€[the€non„¼anthropologist!]€Karl€Polanyi€and€his€defenders.€They€wereÏjoined€in€an€intermediary€position€by€Renfrew€and€hisÏfollowers€among€archaeologists€who€see€some€pass„me„on€chain„¼linked€down„the„line€trade.€On€the€other€side€are€theÏformalists,€like€Herskovits€and€xx,€who€argue€that€the€marketÏexisted€and/or€modern€economic€analysis€is€applicable€toÏancient€economy.€€The€primitivist/€institutionalist/Ïsubstantivists€€Weber,€Polanyi,€Finley,€Renfrew,€and€indeedÏMarx€before€them,€denied€the€importance€of€market€relations,€aÏforteriori€of€capital€accumulation,€and€of€the€significance€ofÏlong€distance€trade€in€the€ancient€world.€ÌÌTheir€position€was€also€challenged€long€ago,€at€least€deÏfacto.€€Among€historians,€Weber's€contemporary€Werner€SombartÏ(1967,1969)€did€so,€and€then€so€did€Gordon€Chile€(1936,€1942)Ïamong€archaeologists.€Yet€even€Childe€"consistentlyÏunderestimated"€the€strength€of€the€opposite€case,€accordingÏto€Kohl€(1987).€Moreover,€in€a€posthumously€published€essayÏeven€Polanyi€(1975,1977)€wrote€that€"throughout,€the€externalÏorigin€of€trade€is€conspicuous;€internal€trade€is€largelyÏderivative€of€external€trade€...either€from€...€(statusÏmotive)„€or€for€the€sake€of€gain...(profit€motive)"€(PolanyiÏ1975:€154,136„7).ÌÌIn€the€1970s,€archaeologists€rejected€the€earlierÏPolanyi/Finley€views€and€offered€reinterpretations€ofÏincreasingly€available€data€in€the€pathbreakingÏ"Anthropological€Perspectives€on€Ancient€Trade"€by€RobertÏAdams€(1974)€and€"Third€Millennium€Modes€of€Exchange€and€ModesÏof€Production"€by€C.C.€Lamberg„Karlovsky€(1975).€About€theÏsame€time,€H.W.W.€Crawford€(1973:273)€had€also€observedÏ"increasing€evidence€for€private€ownership€of€land,€propertyÏand€therefore€capital"€and€suggested€that€temples€may€haveÏacted€as€banks.ÌÌSince€then,€the€empirical€and€analytical€refutation€of€theÏprimitivist„substantivist€argument€has€been€almost€unceasing.ÏThe€evidence€„„€more€through€the€record€of€archaeologicalÏfinds€than€through€surviving€literary€texts€„„€has€beenÏsubstantial.€The€related€arguments€about€the€importance€in€andÏfor€ancient€economy€of€very€long€distance€trade,€marketÏrelations,€demand€and€supply€related€price€formation,Ïmonetization,€entrepreneurship,€yes€and€capital€accumulationÏhave€been€so€overwhelming€that€we€can€at€best€only€point€toÏsome€of€the€tip€of€the€iceberg.€ÌÌAmong€the€more€conceptual€writings€are€those€of€Kajsa€EkholmÏ(1980),€Ekholm€and€Friedman€(1982),€Rowlands,€Larsen€andÏKristiansen€(1987),€Philip€Kohl€(1987,€1989,€1991),€andÏChristopher€Edens€and€Kohl€(n.d.).€The€€more€empirical€reviewsÏinclude€those€by€George€Dales€(1976),€Shereen€Ratnagar€(1981),ÏC.C.€Lamberg„Karlovsky€(19xx),€and€too€many€others€to€recount.ÏHowever€in€this€regard,€Edens€and€Kohl€(n.d.)€also€refer€toÏPowell€(1977),€Foster€(1977),€Gledhill€&€Larsen€(1982),ÏZagrell€(1986),€and€Charpin€(19xx).€ÌÌIn€these€debates,€I€must€take€sides€with€the€anti„primitivistÏ"marketeers."€€Their€view€may€be€summarized€by€Lamberg„ÏKarlovsky's€(1975)€early€explicit€rejection€of€the€PolanyiÏposition€on€the€role€of€"profit,€price„fixing,€wholesaling,Ïsupply„demand,€or€even€private€ownership€of€land€for€surplusÏproduction....It€is€the€central€thesis€...€that€all€of€theseÏexisted€in€a€market€network€at€least€by€the€end€of€the€fourthÏmillennium€in€Mesopotamia."€€Many€records€from€the€3rd€and€2ndÏmillennia€also€attest€to€fluctuations€in€the€prices€of€goldÏand€silver€relative€to€each€other€as€well€as€over€both€longÏand€short€terms€to€land,€slaves,€grains,€oil,€and€wages€whichÏalso€changed€relative€to€each€other.€If€these€price€changesÏdid€not€directly€respond€to€supply€and€demand,€they€did€soÏthrough€administered€prices,€which€also€had€to€respond€atÏleast€politically€to€supply€and€demand.€Moreover,€"evidence€isÏabundant€of€the€accumulation€of€human€and€material€capital,Ïincluding€circulating€capital€not€directly€involved€in€theÏproduction€process€...€and€fixed€capital"€(Silver€1985:163).ÏDocumentation€from€late€3rd€and€early€2nd€millenniumÏMesopotamia€analyzed€by€Mogens€Larsen€(1987)€suggests€thatÏpublic€and€private€accumulation€were€both€simultaneouslyÏcomplementary€and€that€each€replaced€the€other€in€relativeÏimportance€back€and€forth€over€time.€€I€might€suggest€thatÏthey€probably€also€did€so€over€less€and€more€prosperous€phasesÏof€the€economic€cycle.€ÌÌThe€refutation€of€Polanyi€and€Finley€about€the€importance€ofÏmarket€ò òrelationsó ó€€as€well€as€the€market€places€he€recognizedÏat€the€local€level€was€one€thing.€The€recognition€of€theÏrelated€vital€importance€of€long€distance€trade€and€tradingÏnetworks,€beyond€Polanyi's€local€markets€and€Renfrew's€hand„¼me„down€non„trade€was€another€thing.€€Robert€Adams€(1974:Ï247,248)€found€"little€doubt€that€long„distance€trade€was€aÏformidable€socio„economic€force"€and€also€that€"we€haveÏwrongly€deprecated€the€entrepreneurial€element€in€theÏhistorical€development€of€at€least€the€more€complexÏsocieties."€€Indeed€as€observed€above,€even€Polanyi€himselfÏcame€to€say€that€internal€trade€was€largely€derivative€fromÏexternal€trade.€€Moreover,€as€Kohl€(1989:228)€remarks,€"theÏintercultural€trade€that€developed€between€resource„poorÏsouthern€Mesopotamia€and€resource„rich€highland€areas€ofÏAnatolia€and€Iran€necessarily€transformed€the€productive€[andÏpolitical,€social€and€cultural,€in€a€word€civilizational€stateÏformation?]€activities€of€all€societies€participating€in€theÏexchange€network€without€the€development€of€an€overarchingÏpolity€or€empire."ÌÌÌOf€course,€the€primitivists/substantivists€will€not€beÏpersuaded€by€yet€another€statement€of€the€opposite€position,Ïnor€should€they€be€convinced€by€any€mere€ò òstatementó ó.€Indeed,Ïeven€those€closer€to€my€own€position€may€find€it€rather€tooÏextreme.€Moreover,€as€one€of€them€suggested,€I€may€beÏconfounding€a€statement€about€"reality"€a€bit€with€my€choiceÏof€a€conceptual€approach€to€that€reality.€I€do€not€wish€toÏargue€that€the€"market"€existed€independently€of€otherÏinstitutions€in€the€Bronze€Age€„€or€in€our€own€for€thatÏmatter.€I€only€wish€to€take€a€position€in€this€on„goingÏdebate,€within€which€I€also€situate€the€inquiry€below;€òòandóó€IÏwish€to€go€a€step€beyond€it€to€insist€that€€"world€market"Ïò òforcesó ó€also€impinge€on€local€institutions€and€policy€formationÏthen€„€and€now.€ÌÌòòConceptualizing€Center„Periphery€and€World„System/sóóÌÌSome€more€conceptual€writers€among€the€"marketeers"€and€"long„Ïdistance€traders"€have€also€sought€recourse€to€at€least€someÏaspects€of€"world„systems"€theory.€Thus,€a€new€wave€inÏarchaeological€studies€has€recently€appeared.€It€appliesÏcenter-periphery€and/or€world€systems€analysis€to€the€study€ofÏcomplex€societies€of€the€past.€€Rowlands,€Larsen€andÏKristiansen,€Eds.€(1987)€entitled€a€book€òòCentre€and€PeripheryÏin€the€Ancient€Worldóó;€Champion€(198x)€edited€one€on€òòCentre€andÏPeriphery:€Comparative€Studies€in€Archeologyóó;€Chase-Dunn€andÏHall€1991€on€òòPre„Capitalist€Core„Periphery€Relationsóó;ÏGuillermo€Algaze€(n.d.)€compares€several€"Prehistoric€WorldÏSystems,€Imperialism,€and€the€Expansion€of€some€Early€PristineÏStates;"€Mitchell€Allen€(1986)€discusses€"Assyrian€Colonies€inÏAnatolia:€A€World€System€Perspective;"€Greg€Woolf€(1990)Ïdiscusses€"World„systems€analysis€and€the€Roman€Empire,"€andÏAndrew€Sherratt€writes€of€"Core,€Periphery,€and€Margin:ÏPerspectives€on€the€Bronze€Age"€(n.d.)€and€asks€"What€Would€aÏBronze€Age€World€System€Look€Like?"€(1992).€ÌÌA€half€century€earlier,€Gordon€Childe€had€already€written€thatÏ"if€the€economy€of€the€Early€Bronze€Age€cities€could€notÏexpand€internally,€owing€to€the€over„concentration€ofÏpurchasing€power€...€the€urban€economy€must€„€and€did€„€expandÏexternally"€(Childe€1942:139).€The€center€sought€"to€persuadeÏtheir€possessors€to€exchange€the€needed€raw€materials€forÏmanufactures."€€According€to€Childe,€this€trade€was€from€theÏbeginning€a€political€trade€between€elites€in€the€center€andÏelites€in€the€periphery,€in€which€the€center€sought€to€induceÏthe€periphery€to€render€up€a€surplus.€€€That€is€how€ChildeÏexplained€for€instance€the€commercial€ventures€and€associatedÏmilitary€campaigns€of€the€Akkadian€King€Sargon€I€in€2350€BC.ÌÌRecent€excavation€at€Habuba€Kabira€in€northern€Syria€of€aÏsouth€Mesopotamian€colony€"represents€a€deliberate€LowerÏMesopotamian€penetration€up€the€Euphrates€...€to€secure€directÏcontrol€of€vital€raw€materials€and€luxuries€from€the€Syrio„¼Anatolian€regions€and€to€regulate€exchange€of€goods€from€theÏeast€and€south„east€passing€this€way"€(Moorey€1987:44).ÌÌMore€recently,€Frederik€Hiebert€and€C.C.€Lamberg„KarlovskyÏ(1991),€for€instance,€write€ofÌÌà0p..pàEgyptian€'colonies'€in€Palestine,€the€Uruk€'colonies'€inÏnorthern€Syria,€the€Proto„Elamite€'colonies'€on€theÏIranian€Plateau,€and€the€Indus€'colony'€at€Shortugai€asÏexamples€of€'core'€regions€having€a€direct€impact€upon€aÏdistant€'periphery.'€The€almost€universal€'explanation'Ïoffered€for€the€existence€of€these€'colonies'€has€focusedÏupon€the€need€to€control€and€exploit€distant€resourcesÏand€trade€routes.€This€is,€however,€€only€a€partialÏexplanation€of€the€complexity€involved.€Areas€of€culturalÏcomplexity€are€constantly€confronted€by€both€and€internalÏand€external€competition€that€extend€beyond€the€need€forÏresources.€€Increasing€energy€expenditures€forÏmaintaining€an€administrative€bureaucracy,€establishingÏnetworks€of€communication,€increasing€agricultural€andÏcommodity€production,€as€well€as€sustaining€the€costsÏinvolved€in€local€conflicts,€which€inevitably€emerge€inÏefforts€toward€centralization,€could€all€lead€toÏexpansionist€tendencies....€In€ancient€societies,Ïdependent€as€they€are€entirely€upon€human,€animal€andÏplant€productivity,€the€solution€to€declining€marginalÏreturns€can€be€accomplished€by€territorial€expansion€andÏthe€exploitation€of€new€à0Ð..Ðàresources,€land,€people,€etc....€TheÏCentral€Asian€Bronze€Age€joins€theÏcommunity€of€Bronze€Age€civilizationsÏin€replicating€this€process€ofÏexpanding€into€a€distant€peripheryÏ(Frederik€Hiebert€and€C.C.€Lamberg„¼Karlovsky€1991:Ms.€without€pp.).ÌÌHowever,€many€of€these€recent€appeals€to€center„peripheryÏcategories€and€to€the€world„systems€or€the€world€system€itselfÏare€only€hinking€or€halting.€Some€engage€in€seemingly€arcaneÏdiscussions€with€Wallerstein€(1974),€who€never€claimed€andÏindeed€denies€(l991)€that€his€"modern€world„system"€and€itsÏmost€significant€characteristics€extend€back€beyond€1450€AD.€Thus,€Greg€Woolf's€(1990)€examination€of€the€Roman€empireÏseems€to€get€lost€in€Wallerstein's€distinctions€between€world„¼systems€and€world€empires,€which€I€regard€as€more€misleadingÏthan€clarifying.€Notwithstanding€their€title,€Rowlands,€LarsenÏand€Kristiansen's€(1987)€book€is€replete€with€assertions€aboutÏthe€limitations€and€doubts€about€the€utility€of€core„peripheryÏanalysis.€[The€two€last€named€had€however€become€moreÏenthusiastic€about€world€system€categories€by€1992,€atÏconferences€where€they€presented€papers€at€panels€with€theÏpresent€author.€Titles€by€Kristiansen€(1992€and€forthcoming)Ïrefer€to€"The€European€World€System€in€the€Bronze€Age"].€ÌÌPhilip€Kohl€(1989)€invokes€the€"Use€and€Abuse€of€World€SystemsÏTheory,"€only€to€argue€that€"nowhere€in€the€ancient€world€mayÏone€properly€speak€of€'world'€structures€of€unequal€exchange,Ïof€'world'€labor€markets,€or€of€economic€dependence€andÏunderdevelopment"€(Edens€and€Kohl€n.d.:4).€In€particular,€KohlÏemphasizes€that€manufacturing€cores€had€no€special€advantages,Ïand€especially€no€technological€monopoly,€over€raw€materialsÏexporting€peripheries.€Therefore,€in€several€publications€heÏalso€takes€special€pains€to€deny€any€"development€ofÏunderdevelopment"€(Frank€1966)€in€the€ancient€world€(KohlÏ1987,€1989,€1991,€1992,€Edens€&€Kohl,€n.d.).€However,€as€KajsaÏEkholm€and€Jonathan€Friedman€(1982:90„91)€pointed€outÏ"center/periphery€relations€are€not€necessarily€defined€inÏterms€of€their€[raw€material„manufactures]€import„exportÏpattern....€Center/periphery€relations€refer,€rather,€toÏdifferent€structural€positions€with€respect€to€totalÏaccumulation"€of€capital,€from€which€they€derive€differentialÏadvantages€and€disadvantages.€€Elsewhere,€Kohl€(n.d.)Ïdemonstrates€how€three€regions€in€Transcaucasia€cannot€beÏconsidered€in€isolation€from€each€other€or€from€MesopotamiaÏand€Persia€to€the€south€and€regions€in€European€Russia€to€theÏnorth.€"Influences,€sometimes€involving€actual€movements€ofÏgoods€and€peoples,€were€felt€from€all€directions.€But€suchÏ'influences'...Ìdo€not€constitute€evidence€for€a€world€system€...€in€anyÏWallersteinian€sense"€(Kohl€n.d.:35).€Despite€repeated€suchÏdisclaimers,€Kohl€is€among€those€who€most€demonstrate€the€deÏfacto€existence,€albeit€with€multiple€and€shifting€cores,Ïperipheries€and€hinterlands,€of€"the€West€Asian€Early€BronzeÏAge€world€system€described€here"€(Edens€and€Kohl€n.d.€59€&Ï60).€ÌÌThis€shadow€boxing€with€non„existent€opponents€who€might€butÏdo€not€make€claims€to€the€total€sameness€of€the€modern€andÏancient€world€system€seems€less€than€fruitful.€It€seems€betterÏjust€to€use€world€system€categories€where€and€when€they€canÏhelp€clarify€the€"reality"€of€the€ancient€world.€€Gills€andÏFrank€(1992)€emphasized€that€through€most€of€history€and€aÏforteriori€pre„history€there€have€been€sets€of€interlinkingÏhegemonic€cores€with€their€respective€peripheries€andÏhinterland/s.€However,€several€cores€seem€to€have€experiencedÏsynchronized€nearly€simultaneous€[cyclical?]€ups€and€downs;Ïand€the€downs€often€led€to€shifts€of€hegemony€to€other,Ïsometimes€recently€emerged,€cores.€Moreover,€following€ourÏstill€earlier€essay,€we€defined€hegemony€as€a€"hierarchicalÏstructure€of€the€accumulation€of€surplus€among€political€entities,€and€their€constituent€classes,€mediated€by€force.€€AÏhierarchy€of€centers€of€accumulation€and€polities€isÏestablished€that€apportions€a€privileged€share€of€surplus,€andÏthe€political€economic€power€to€this€end,€to€the€hegemonicÏcentre/state€and€its€ruling/propertied€classes"€€(Gills€andÏFrank€1990/91).€€ÌÌImportant€here€is€in€the€distinction€between€various€ancientÏworld„systemòòsóó,€and€the€òòoneóó€"Central€World€System,"€as€Chase„¼Dunn€and€Hall€(1991)€recommend€we€call€it€by€combining€theÏdenominations€of€Frank€and€Gills,€and€Wilkinson.€€Thus€forÏinstance,€Algaze€(n.d.)€refers€to€two€different€Bronze€AgeÏ"world„systems"€in€what€is€now€West€Asia/the€Middle€East.ÏInstead,€Gills€and€Frank€like€Wilkinson€insist€that€we€canÏidentify€one€single€world€system€there€already€in€t€he€BronzeÏAge.€We€only€differ€in€that€Wilkinson€dates€its€origin€in€1500ÏBC€and€we€date€it€from€well€over€a€millennium€earlier.ÏMoreover,€all€three€argue€that€there€has€been€an€unbrokenÏhistorical€continuity€between€the€Central€Civilization/WorldÏSystem€from€the€Bronze€Age€to€our€contemporary€"ModernÏCapitalist€World„System."€As€Barry€Gills€coined€a€phrase,€òòitÏis€the€same€system,€but€it€is€not€the€sameóó€insofar€as€thereÏhave€been€some€changes€and€perhaps€even€development/s.ÌÌThe€criterion€of€systemic€participation€in€a€single€worldÏsystem€is€that€no€part€of€this€system€would€be€as€it€is€or€wasÏif€other€parts€were€not€as€they€are€or€were.€The€inter„actionÏfrom€one€part€of€the€system€to€another€may€be€only€indirectlyÏchain„linked;€or€the€various€parts€may€all€have€also€reactedÏto,€and€on,€the€same€global€ecological€constraints.€ThatÏsystem€criterion€was€already€proposed€in€Frank€(1990)€and€inÏGills€and€Frank€(1990/91).€The€latter€went€on€to€explicate:ÌÌà0p..pàThe€capture€by€elite€A€here€(with€or€without€itsÏredistribution€here)€of€part€of€the€economic€surplusÏextracted€by€elite€B€there€means€that€there€isÏ"inter-penetrating€accumulation"€between€A€and€B.€€ThisÏtransfer€or€exchange€of€surplus€connects€not€only€the€twoÏelites,€but€also€their€"societies'"€economic,€social,Ïpolitical,€and€ideological€organization.€€That€is,€theÏtransfer,€exchange€or€"sharing"€of€surplus€connects€theÏelite€A€here€not€only€to€the€elite€B€there.€€SurplusÏtransfer€also€links€the€"societies'"€respective€processesÏof€surplus€management,€their€structures€of€exploitationÏand€oppression€by€class€and€gender,€and€theirÏinstitutions€of€the€state€and€the€economy.€€Thus,€theÏtransfer€or€exchange€of€surplus€is€not€a€sociallyÏ"neutral"€relationship,€but€rather€a€profoundly€systemicÏone.€€Through€sharing€sources€of€surplus,€the€elite€AÏhere€and€the€classes€it€exploits€are€systemicallyÏinter-linked€to€the€"mode€of€production,"€and€even€moreÏimportant,€to€the€ò òmode€of€accumulationó ó€in€B€there.€€ByÏextension,€if€part€of€the€surplus€of€elite€B€here€is€alsoÏtraded,€whether€through€equal€or€more€usually€unequalÏexchange,€for€part€of€the€surplus€accumulated€by€elite€CÏthere,€then€not€only€B€and€C€but€also€A€and€C€areÏsystemically€linked€through€the€intermediary€B.€€Then€A,€B€and€C€are€systemically€connected€in€the€sameÏover-arching€system€of€accumulation.€€Ì€Ìà0p..pàThis€means€that€surplus€extraction€and€accumulation€areÏ"shared"€or€"inter-penetrating"€across€otherwise€discreteÏpolitical€boundaries.€€Thus,€their€elites€participate€inÏeach€others'€system€of€exploitation€vis€a€vis€theÏproducing€classes.€€This€participation€may€be€throughÏeconomic€exchange€relations€via€the€market€or€throughÏpolitical€relations€(eg€-€tribute),€or€throughÏcombinations€of€both.€€All€of€these€relationsÏcharacterize€the€millenarian€relationship,€for€instance,Ïbetween€the€peoples€of€China€and€Inner€Asia.€€ThisÏinter-penetrating€accumulation€thus€creates€a€causalÏinter„dependence€between€structures€of€accumulation€andÏbetween€political€entities.€€Therefore€the€structure€ofÏeach€component€entity€of€the€world€system€is€salientlyÏaffected€by€this€inter-penetration.€€Thus,€empiricalÏevidence€of€such€inter-penetrating€accumulation€throughÏthe€transfer€or€exchange€of€surplus€is€the€minimumÏindicator€of€a€systemic€relationship.€€Concomitantly,€weÏshould€seek€evidence€that€this€inter-linkage€causes€atÏleast€some€element€of€economic€and/or€politicalÏrestructuring€in€the€respective€zones.€€ÌÌà0p..pàFor€instance,€historical€evidence€of€a€fiscal€crisis€inÏone€state€or€a€zone€of€the€world€system€(eg.€in€thirdÏcentury€Rome)€as€a€consequence€of€an€exchange€of€surplusÏwith€another€zone€would€be€a€clear€indicator€of€aÏrelationship€at€a€high€level€of€systemic€integration.€ÏEvidence€of€change€in€the€mode€of€accumulation€and€theÏsystem€of€exploitation€in€one€zone€as€a€function€of€theÏtransfer€of€surplus€to€another€zone€would€also€constituteÏevidence€of€systemic€relations.€€Evidence€of€politicalÏalliances€and/or€conflict€related€to€participation€in€aÏsystem€of€transfer€of€surplus€would€also€be€consideredÏevidence€of€a€systemic€relationship.€€According€to€theseÏcriteria,€if€different€"societies,"€empires,€andÏcivilizations,€as€€well€as€other€€"peoples,"€regularlyÏexchanged€surplus,€then€they€also€participated€in€theÏsame€world€system.€€That€is€"society"€A€here€could€andÏwould€not€be€the€same€as€it€was€in€the€absence€of€itsÏcontact€with€B€there,€and€vice€versa.€€ÌÌà0p..pàTrade€in€high€value€luxury€items,€not€to€mention€preciousÏmetals€in€particular,€may,€contra€Wallerstein€(1974,Ï1989),€be€even€more€important€than€lower€value€stapleÏtrade€in€defining€systemic€relations.€€This€is€becauseÏthe€high€value€"luxury"€trade€is€essentially€anÏinter-elite€exchange.€€These€commodities,€besides€servingÏelite€consumption€or€accumulation,€are€typically€alsoÏstores€of€value.€€They€embody€aspects€of€social€relationsÏof€production,€which€reproduce€the€division€of€labor,€theÏclass€structure,€and€the€mode€of€accumulation.€€PreciousÏmetals€are€only€the€most€obvious€example,€but€manyÏ"luxury"€commodities€have€played€a€similar€roleÏ(Schneider€1977).€€Thus,€trade€in€ò òbothó ó€high€value€"luxury"€items€and€staple€commodities€are€indicators€ofÏinter-penetrating€accumulation.€€ÌÌDespite€the€above€cited€emphasis€on€"economic"€tradeÏconnections€to€cement€the€world€system,€Gills€and€FrankÏ(1990/91)€also€explicitly€accepted€the€world€systemÏconnections€established€and€maintained€through€recurrentÏ"political"€conflict€among€"societies,"€which€were€emphasizedÏby€David€Wilkinson€(1987).€The€recognition€of€such€conflict€asÏa€mark€of€participation€in€the€ò òsameó ó€world€system€is€all€theÏmore€important€insofar€as€much€of€the€conflict,€but€alsoÏalliance,€and€war€has€been€over€"economic"€resources€andÏcontrol€of€trade€routes.€And€vice€versa:€Trade€in€metalsÏand/or€weapons€could€increase€military€capacity€and€that€inÏturn€can€enhance€control€over€sources€of€economic€resources,Ïincluding€trade€itself.€Moreover,€political€conflict€[andÏshifting€alliances]€have€also€been€the€expression€of€theÏalternation€between€hegemony€and€rivalry€within€the€worldÏsystem€and/or€its€regional€parts.€These€factors€play€anÏimportant€role€in€€the€world€system€conceptualization€of€GillsÏand€Frank€as€well€as€students€of€more€recent€internationalÏrelations.ÌÌThus,€I€have€suggested€elsewhere€(Frank€1992,€Frank€and€GillsÏ1992)€that€the€world€system€seems€to€display€the€followingÏstructures€and€processes€at€least€since€the€Bronze€Age:ÌÌà0p..pà-€1.€The€world€system€itself.€Per€contra€WallersteinÏ(l974),€we€believe€that€the€existence€and€development€ofÏthe€same€world€system€in€which€we€live€stretches€back€atÏleast€five€thousand€years€(Frank€1990a,€1991a,b;€GillsÏand€Frank€1990/91,€1992;€Frank€and€Gills€1992).ÏWallerstein€emphasizes€the€difference€a€hyphen€[-]€makes.ÏUnlike€our€nearly€ò òWó óò òorldó ó€[wide]€System,€World-ò òSystemó óòòóóòòò òsóóó ó€areÏin€a€"world"€of€their€own,€which€need€not€be€even€nearlyÏworld€wide.€Of€course€however,€the€€"new€world"€in€theÏ"Americas"€was€home€to€some€world-systems€of€its€ownÏbefore€its€incorporation€into€our€(pre-existing)€worldÏsystem€after€1492.ÌÌà0p..pà-€2.€The€process€of€capital€accumulation€as€the€motorÏforce€of€[world€system]€history.€Wallerstein€and€othersÏregard€continuous€capital€accumulation€as€the€differentiaÏspecifica€of€the€"modern€world-system."€We€have€arguedÏelsewhere€that€in€this€regard€the€"modern"€world€systemÏis€not€so€different€and€that€this€same€process€of€capitalÏaccumulation€has€played€a,€if€not€the,€central€role€inÏthe€world€system€for€several€millennia€(€Frank€1991b€andÏGills€and€Frank€1990/91).€Amin€(1991)€and€WallersteinÏ(1991)€disagree.€They€argue€that€previous€world-systemsÏwere€what€Amin€calls€"tributary"€or€Wallerstein€"worldÏempires."€In€these,€Amin€claims€that€politics€andÏideology€were€in€command,€not€the€economic€law€of€valueÏin€the€accumulation€of€capital.€Wallerstein€seems€toÌà0p..pàagree.ÌÌò òà0p..pàó ó-€3.€The€center-periphery€structure€in€and€of€the€worldÌà0p..pà[system].€This€structure€is€familiar€to€analysts€ofÏdependence€in€the€"modern"€world€system€and€especially€inÏLatin€America€since€1492.€It€includes€but€is€not€limitedÏto€the€transfer€of€surplus€between€zones€of€the€worldÏsystem.€Frank€(1967,€1969)€wrote€about€this€among€others.ÏHowever,€we€now€find€that€this€analytical€category€is€Ïalso€applicable€to€the€world€system€before€that.€Ì€Ìà0p..pà-€4.€The€alternation€between€hegemony€and€rivalry.In€thisÏprocess,€regional€hegemonies€and€rivalries€succeed€theÏprevious€period€of€hegemony.€World€system€andÏinternational€relations€literature€has€recently€producedÏmany€good€analyses€of€alternation€between€hegemonicÏleadership€and€rivalry€for€hegemony€in€the€world€systemÏsince€1492,€for€instance€by€Wallerstein€(1979),€or€sinceÏ1494€by€Modelski€(1987)€and€by€Modelski€and€ThompsonÏ(1988).€However,€hegemony€and€rivalry€for€the€same€alsoÏmark€world€[system]€history€long€before€that€(Gills€andÏFrank€1992).ÌÌ€à0p..pà5.€Long€[and€short]€economic€cycles€of€alternatingÏascending€„[sometimes€denominated€"A"]€phases€andÏdescending€[sometimes€denominated€€"B"]€phases.€In€theÏreal€world€historical€process€and€in€its€analysis€byÏstudents€of€the€"modern"€world€system,€these€long€cyclesÏare€also€associated€with€€each€of€the€previousÏcategories.€That€is,€ò òó óan€important€characteristic€of€theÏ"modern"world€system€is€that€the€process€of€capitalÏaccumulation,€changes€in€center-periphery€position€withinÏit,€and€world€system€hegemony€and€rivalry€are€allÏcyclical€and€occur€in€tandem€with€each€other.€FrankÏanalyzed€the€same€for€the€"modern"€world€system€under€theÏtitle€World€Accumulation€1492-1789€and€DependentÏAccumulation€and€Underdevelopment€(Frank€1978a,b).ÏHowever,€we€now€find€that€this€same€world€system€cycleÏand€its€features€also€extends€back€many€centuries€beforeÏ1492€(Frank€and€Gills€1992:2„3).ÌÌÌÌThe€abovementioned€cycles€are€of€the€more€or€less€50€year€longÏ"Kondratieff"€type.€How€far€back€these€economic€cycles€go€isÏstill€in€dispute.€By€Modelski€and€Thompson's€(1992)€count,Ïthere€have€been€19€of€them€reaching€back€to€nearly€1000€AD.ÏHowever,€they€also€recognize€that€these€shorter€"long"€cyclesÏprobably€nested€in€still€longer€"long"€political€economicÏcycles.€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)€argued€that€a€pattern€of€suchÏmuch€longer€"long"€cycles€goes€back€to€at€least€1700€BC.€OfÏcourse,€these€much€longer€"long"€cycles€may€also€contain€otherÏshorter€cycles,€including€perhaps€cycles€of€Kondratieff€typeÏduration.€Indeed,€C.J.€Going€(1992)€has€argued€that€it€isÏpossible€to€identify€"Kondratieff€type"€long€cycles€in€RomanÏtimes€and€that€they€were€Roman€Empire/Economy€wide.ÌÌI€now€believe€that€we€can€identify€a€cyclical€pattern€of€long€Ïascending€and€descending€phases€in€the€same€world€system€backÏat€least€through€the€3rd€millennium€BC€in€the€Bronze€Age.ÏIndeed€for€the€purposes€of€this€essay,€a€most€revealing€criterion€of€the€extent€of€the€world€system€and€ofÏparticipation€or€not€in€the€same€is€this€synchronization€of€AÏand€B€phases€of€the€long€economic€cycle.€If€distant€parts€ofÏAfro„Eurasia€experience€economic€expansions€and€then€againÏeconomic€contractions€nearly€simultaneously,€that€would€seemÏto€be€important€prima€facie€evidence€that€evidence€that€theyÏparticipate€in€the€same€world€system.ÌòòóóòòóóÌLike€Gills€and€Frank€(1990/91,€1992),€Edens€and€Kohl€suggestÏthat€a€major€criterion€of€participation€in€a€single€worldÏsystem€is€near€simultaneity€or€synchronism€of€[cyclical?]Ïexpansion€and€contraction,€which€ÌÌà0p..pàsuggests€the€action€of€an€interrelated€set€ofÏtransregional€social€forces€operative€over€vast€regionsÏof€western€Asia€from€the€mid„3rd€through€the€mid„2ndÏmillennium€BC....€The€existence€of€an€ancient€worldÏsystem€is€postulated€by€the€largely€synchronous€processesÏof€rise€and€collapse€recorded€throughout€this€area;€it€isÏdifficult€to€deny€that€one€here€is€witnessingÏhistorically€connected€processes€...€[in]€the€worldÏsystem"€(Edens€&€Kohl€n.d.:25,61).€ÌÌSummarizing€then,€we€can€list€the€following€among€theÏidentifiable€„€and€researchable!€„€criteria€of€participationÏin€the€ò òsameó ó€world€system:€extensive€and€persistent€tradeÏconnections;€persistent€or€recurrent€political€relations€withÌparticular€regions€or€peoples,€including€especially€center„¼periphery„hinterland€relations,€and€hegemony/rivalry€relationsÏand€processes;€and€sharing€major€[and€minor]€economic,Ïpolitical,€and€perhaps€also€cultural€cycles.€TheÏidentification€of€these€cycles€and€their€bearing€on€the€extentÏof€the€world€system€will€play€a€particularly€important€role€inÏthe€present€inquiry.ÌÌòòBeginning€the€Identification€of€Long€CyclesóóÌÌGills€and€Frank€(1992)€sought€to€identify€"World€SystemÏCycles,€Crises€and€Hegemonial€Shifts€1700€BC€to€1700€AD."€€InÏa€concluding€summary€table,€we€identified€the€cycles€andÏexpansive€[A]€and€contractive/crisis€[B]€phases€as€follows:ÌÌòòóóB€Phase:€1700€„€1500\1400€BCÌòòóóA€Phase:€1400€„€1200€BCÌB€Phase:€1200€„€1000€BCÌòòóóA€Phase:€1000€„€800€BCÌB€Phase:€800€€„€550€BCÌA€Phase:€550€€„€450€BCÌB€Phase:€450€€„€350€BCÌA€Phase:€350€€„€250\200€BCÌB€Phase:€250\200€„€100\50€BCÌA€Phase:€100\50€BC€„€150\200€ADÌB€Phase:€150\200€„€500€ADÌA€Phase:€500€„€750\800€ADÌB€Phase:€750\800€„€1000\1050€ADÌA€Phase:€1000\1050€„€1250\1300€ADÌB€Phase:€1250\1300€„€1450€ADÌÌOf€course,€we€should€not€expect€to€find€completeÏsynchronization€or€simultaneity€of€A€and€B€phases€across€theÏentire€world€system,€and€still€less€in€its€Bronze€AgeÏbeginnings.€It€seems€enough,€indeed€very€much,€to€be€able€toÏdemonstrate€or€even€suggest€"substantial"€synchronization€ofÏeconomic€good€or€bad€times€over€very€wide€areas,€which€areÏusually€considered€to€be€quite€independent€of€each€other.ÏMoreover,€other€world€systemic€cyclical€characteristicsÏcomplicate€the€pattern.€Both€are€also€visible€in€the€presentÏcyclical€downturn.€1.€Expansions€and€contraction€seems€toÏbegin€in€one€part€of€the€world€system,€usually€in€its€centerÏcore,€and€then€to€diffuse€from€there€to€other€parts,€includingÏcore€competitors€and€periphery.€Today,€cyclical€expansion,€andÏespecially€contraction,€begins€in€the€United€States€and€spreadÏout€from€there.€Therefore€also,€cyclical€decline€also€tends€toÏspell€the€relative€or€even€absolute€decline€of€the€core€power.Ï2.€This€decline€„€crisis€is€danger€ò òandó ó€€opportunity€„€offersÏopportunities€to€some€rivals,€or€often€even€some€peripheralÏpart€of€the€system.€Some€of€them€advance€both€absolutely€andÏrelatively,€and€perhaps€even€to€replace€the€previous€centralÏcore.€Today,€we€witness€this€process€in€Japan€and€the€EastÏAsian€NICs€relative€to€the€United€States.€3.€While€trying€toÏidentify€cycles€in€òòWorld€Accumulatioóóòòóóòònóóòò€1492„1789óó€(Frank€1978a),ÏI€made€the€empirical€generalization€that€incipient€exploratoryÏexpansions€of€the€world€system€[which€I€then€thought€to€beÏmuch€younger€and€smaller]€occurred€during€B€€phases,€like€17thÏcentury€European€settlement€in€North€America.€These€new€areasÏthen€offered€the€basis€of€subsequent€major€investment€andÏexpansion€during€the€next€A€phase.€These€phase„displacementÏand/or€out„of„phase€characteristics€in€and€of€economic€cycles,Ïof€course,€complicate€the€identification€of€system„wide€cyclesÏin€the€past,€and€all€the€more€so€in€the€distant€Bronze€Age.ÏHowever,€the€existence€of€such€complicating€factors€does€notÏmean€that€there€are€€„€or€were€„€no€systemic€cycles€withÏdistinguishable€expansive€A€and€contractive€B€phases.ÌÌOn€this€occasion,€I€wish€to€confine€my€review€and€whereÏnecessary€revision€of€the€cycle€dates€primarily€to€the€BronzeÏAge€and€extend€only€preliminary€attention€also€to€the€Iron€andÏ"Classical"€age€period.€However,€I€also€extend€theÏidentification€of€the€cycles€backward€through€or€at€least€intoÏthe€3rd€millennium€BC.€[The€latest€two€millennia€are€reviewedÏseparately€and€with€little€change€to€1700€AD€in€Frank€andÏGills€(1992b)€and€with€special€reference€to€Central€Asia€inÏFrank€(1992c)€and€extended€to€the€present€day€with€referenceÏto€Latin€America€in€Frank€(1992d)].ÌÌAlready€in€an€"Epilogue"€to€the€earlier€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)Ïarticle€written€when€it€was€already€in€press,€I€noted€thatÏDavid€Wilkinson€(1992)€and€Andrew€Bosworth€(1992)€hadÏproceeded€independently€of€each€other€to€test€the€existenceÏand€timing€of€our€cycles€[which€were€proposed€in€a€draft€paperÏpresented€at€professional€meetings€in€1991].€Both€used€dataÏfrom€Tertius€Chandler's€(1987)€census€of€growth€and€decline€inÏcity€sizes.€Both€confirmed€the€existence€and€most€but€not€allÏof€the€timing€of€our€cycles.€€I€also€pointed€to€the€dating€ofÏperiods€during€the€Bronze€Age€1st€millennium€BC€by€Andrew€andÏSusan€Sherratt€(1991),€which€coincided€almost€exactly€with€our€dating€of€the€up€and€down€phases.€€Moreover,€I€referred€toÏKristian€Kristiansen's€(1992€and€forthcoming)€also€similarÏdating€of€expansions€and€contractions€in€Europe€during€the€1stÏmillennium€BC,€and€to€Klav€Randsborg€(1991)€for€the€1stÏmillennium€AD.€I€shall€bring€all€these€and€more€to€bear€onÏtrying€to€refine€and€where€appropriate€revise€the€cycle€phaseÏdatings€proposed€by€Gills€and€Frank€(1992).ÌÌDoing€so€may€involve€sacrificing€attention€to€the€"hegemonialÏshifts",€which€were€emphasized€in€€principle€but€already€shortÏchanged€in€practice€by€Gills€and€Frank€(1992).€In€compensationÏperhaps,€I€will€try€to€take€more€account€of€war.€Matthew€MelkoÏand€David€Wilkinson€(1992)€have€made€a€convenient€tentativeÏand€still€unpublished€accounting€of€alternating€periods€ofÏmore€war€and€more€peace.€Other€more€extensive€surveys€of€warÏperhaps€should,€but€here€will€not,€be€used.€It€may€be€usefulÏto€compare€these€to€the€periods€or€cyclical€A€and€B€phases€ofÏeconomic€expansion€and€contraction.€€In€the€above€cited€òòWorldÏAccumulationóó,€I€also€distinguished€between€A€phase€expansiveÏand€B€phase€defensive€wars.€Since€then,€Joshua€GoldsteinÏ(1988)€and€others€have€sought€to€demonstrate€that€major,€thatÏis€large€scale,€"world"€wars€have€occurred€at€the€end€of€theÏexpansive€A€phases€of€"Kondratieff"€50€year€cycles€in€the€pastÏ500€years.€Still,€taking€a€longer€view,€there€is€theoreticalÏground€for€arguing€that€the€largest€incidence€of€wars€„€andÏalso€large€scale€migratory€invasions€„€should€occur€during€€BÏphase€crises.€That€is€when€enhanced€competition€for€a€smallerÏeconomic€pie€generates€more€military€conflict,€bothÏ"internal/national"€and€"external/inter„national."€It€mayÏtherefore€also€prove€fruitful€to€correlate€data€on€frequencyÏand€intensity€of€war,€such€as€those€supplied€by€Melko€andÏWilkinson€(1992)€with€the€hypothesized€periods€of€cyclicalÏeconomic€expansion€and€contraction.€€€ÌÌòòóóMoreover,€now€I€also€have€additional€evidence€available:€SomeÏsystematic€information€on€dates€was€already€previouslyÏpublished€for€instance€by€George€Dales€(1976)€on€Iranian„IndusÏrelations€and€by€Shereen€Ratnagar€(l981)€in€a€tabular€summaryÏof€her€study€of€the€"òòEncountersóó"€between€the€Indus€ValleyÏHarappa€Civilization€and€points€West.€On€these€points€West,Ïsome€more€partly€systematic€information€is€published€and€stillÏunpublished€by€Christopher€Edens€(1992€a,b,c)€and€by€Edens€andÏPhilip€Kohl€(n.d.).€€E.N.€Chernykh€(n.d.)€proposes€cycleÏdatings€for€most€of€Eurasia€in€his€Russian€language€òòAncientÏMetallurgy€in€the€USSR:€The€Early€Metal€Ageóó,€which€compilesÏthe€research€of€two€generations€of€archaeologists€in€the€thenÏSoviet€Union€and€whose€English€language€translation€is€stillÏunpublished.€Other€references€to€more€or€less€precise€dates€ofÏespecially€economic€expansions€and€contractions€here€and€thereÏare€scattered€through€previous€and€new€works€of€various€otherÏarchaeologists€and€others.€€Because€of€the€gap€between€theirÏexpertise€and€mine,€I€often€prefer€to€let€them€speak€forÏthemselves€by€quoting€them€directly,€instead€of€my€trying€toÏconvey€the€same€in€my€own€inexpert€way.ÌÌÌÌ̇òòExploring€thóóòòe€Extension€of€the€Wóóòòorld€System€in€the€Bronze€AgeÌóóÌEdens€and€Kohl€writeÌÌà0p..pàOne€must€define€the€spatial€parameters€of€one's€worldÏsystem,€while€at€the€same€time€emphasize€that€theÏprocedure€is€to€some€extent€artificial€in€that€theÏsystem's€borders€were€never€hermetically€sealed€and€thatÏthey€expanded€or€contracted€over€time.€This€difficultyÏaffects€the€analysis€presented€above€[here€below]€(EdensÏand€Kohl,€n.d.:58).€ÌÌThe€farther€back€we€go€in€[pre]history,€not€surprisingly,€theÏmore€difficult€it€becomes€to€identify€the€changingÏgeographical€extent€and€temporal€cycle€of€expansion€andÏcontraction€of€the€world€system€with€any€kind€of€confidence.€ÌÌEdens€and€Kohl€answer€their€own€above€cited€admonition€to€Ïdefine€the€spatial€parameters€of€the€world€system:ÌÌà0p..pàRoughly,€the€area€stretches€from€the€easternÏMediterranean€in€the€west€to€the€Indus€valley€in€the€eastÏand€from€southern€Central€Asia€and€the€great€CaucasusÏrange€in€the€north€to€the€Sudan€and€Arabian€peninsula€inÏthe€south....€Intriguingly€and€perhaps€not€entirelyÏaccidentally,€[a€millennium€later]€the€political€bordersÏof€the€Achaemenid€empire,€including€those€areas,€likeÏmainland€Greece,€where€the€Persians€expanded,€coincideÏfairly€closely€with€the€limits€of€the€West€Asian€EarlyÏBronze€Age€world€system€(Edens€&€Kohl€n.d.:58„59).ÌÌThese€limits€of€the€Bronze€Age€world€system€also€coincideÏfairly€closely€with€those€set€out€in€Gills€and€Frank€(1990/91,Ï1992)€and€in€Frank€and€Gills€(1992).€€We€advanced€the€thesisÏthat€the€present€world€system€was€born€some€5,000€years€ago€orÏearlier€in€West€Asia,€North€Africa,€and€the€EasternÏMediterranean€(Frank€1990,€Gills€and€Frank€1990/91,€1992€andÏFrank€and€Gills€1992).€The€argument€was€similar€to€that€ofÏDavid€Wilkinson€(1987)€who€identified€the€birth€of€"CentralÏCivilization"€through€the€establishment€of€systemic€andÏsystematic€relations€between€Egypt€and€Mesopotamia€around€1500ÏBC.€However,€the€date€of€the€formation€of€the€world€system€Ïwas€pushed€back€farther€to€at€least€3000€BC€by€analogy€to€theÏupstream€confluence€of€two€or€more€major€branches€to€form€aÏsingle€river€like€the€Mississippi„Missouri€(Gills€and€FrankÏ1990/91).€Moreover,€we€suggested€that€already€in€the€3rdÏmillennium€BC€the€world€system€included€not€only€Egypt€andÏMesopotamia.€It€also€included€the€Arabian€Peninsula,€theÏLevant,€Anatolia,€Iran,€the€Indus€Valley,€Transcaucasia,€andÏparts€of€Central€Asia.€All€the€regions€were€in€directÏ"bilateral,"€or€at€least€chain„€linked€indirectÏ"multilateral,"€systematic€and€therefore€systemic€contact€withÏeach€other€(Gills€and€Frank€1992,€Frank€and€Gills€1992).€ÌÌHowever,€Leon€Marfoe€(1987)€analyses€of€the€emergence€of€theÏEgypt„Levant„Syria„Anatolia€axis€and€its€extension€to€Arabia,ÏMesopotamia€and€Iran€from€the€5th€and€in€the€4th€and€3rdÏmillennia.€Ì‡à0p..pàDuring€a€short€time€around€3000€BC,€apparentlyÏsophisticated,€complex€systems€...€appeared€across€anÏarea€stretching€from€the€Nile€and€Aegean€in€the€west€toÏcentral€Asia€in€the€east.€It€is€not€impossible€that€theseÏregional€developments€may€represent€a€loosely€integratedÏand€related€series€of€changes€...€that€may€in€part€beÏattributable€to€an€interplay€between€local€and€externalÏforces.€In€this€regard,€one€possible€effect€of€theirÏoutcome€may€have€been€a€'primitive€accumulation€ofÏcapital'€and€its€role€as€a€force€for€such€change.€SuchÏconclusion€would€include€a€measure€of€'market€forces'€inÏthese€periods....Between€the€late€fourth€and€thirdÏmillennia,€a€faint,€highly€buffered€'market€mechanisms'Ïmay€have€operated€for€different€periods€of€time€and€inÏdifferent€regions€along€these€networks€(MarfoeÏ1987:25,30,34€in€€Rowlands€ed.)ÌÌIn€the€same€volume€edited€by€Rowlands,€Larsen€and€Kristiansen,ÏP.R.S.€Moorey€(1987)€pursues€the€4th€millennium€trail€fromÏMesopotamia,€via€Syria€into€Egypt,€which€he€notes€scholarsÏwere€already€aware€of€over€a€century€ago.€€Moorey€analyzes€atÏleast€indirect€mid„4th€millennium€exchange€via€Syria€ofÏGerzean€period€Egyptian€gold€for€oil,€silver€and€lapis€lazuriÏfrom€Mesopotamia,€which€must€have€received€the€latter€fromÏfarther€afield€in€turn.€He€also€asks,€but€on€present€evidenceÏis€unable€to€answer,€whether€and€to€what€extent€this€long„¼distance€exchange€altered€the€productive€activities€in€Egypt.ÏHowever,€he€notes€the€boon€to€power€and€status€of€those€whoÏcontrolled€the€distribution€of€imported€luxury€items€throughÏlocal€exchange€networks€even€before€the€Gerzean€period.€UnderÏthe€title€"Dynamics€of€Trade€in€th3e€Ancient€MesopotamianÏ'World€System',"€Christopher€Edens€(1992)€reviews€developmentsÏin€Southern€Mesopotamia€and€Elam,€the€Central€Gulf€regionÏincluding€Dilmun=Bahrain,€Southeastern€Arabia€and€Oman,€andÏthe€Indus€region.€He€suggests€that€the€roots€of€the€PersianÏGulf€trade€presumably€lie€in€the€5th€millennium€BC€and€thatÏmaritime€products€already€appear€consistently€in€theÏMesopotamian€archaeological€record€for€the€late€4thÏmillennium.€Certainly€by€the€3rd€millennium,€ÌÌà0p..pàthe€Gulf€trade€represented€a€material€connection€betweenÏthese€four€regions,€and€potentially€a€mechanism€by€whichÏemerging€ò òconditions€in€one€region€effected€changes€inÏothers.€ó óò òHowever€...€ó óMesopotamian€dealings€with€lands€toÏthe€east€also€involved€a€range€of€diplomatic€exchanges,Ïelite€marriages,€cultural€hegemony,€political€clientship,Ïand€warfare.€Together€with€trade,€all€these€activitiesÏdefined€ò òcenter„periphery€relations,€whose€nature€andÏintensity€altered€as€constituent€societies€changedó ó"€„„Ïand€presumably€vice€versa!€(Edens€1990:120€emphasisÏadded).ÌÌReferring€specifically€to€Dilmun,€Edens€(1992:129)€suggestsÏthat€its€"political€economy€[had]€a€dialectical€relationship"Ïwith€Mesopotamia.€Urbanization€and€political€organization€onÏBahrain€Ìwere€a€function€of€the€Gulf€trade€and€in€turn€determinedÏDilmun's€demand€for€cereals€from€Mesopotamia€and€participation€in€the€transshipment€supply€to€Mesopotamia€of€copper€fromÏelsewhere.€ÌÌThus,€relations€among€otherwise€distinctive€but€related€andÏtherefore€presumably€mutually€affected€regions€have€left€marksÏin€the€archaeological€record€from€the€4th€and€even€the€5th€andÏperhaps€earlier€millennia€BC.€Many€were€ecologically€based€on€Ïdifferences€and€complementarities€in€natural€resourceÏendowments,€which€generated€trade,€migration,€invasion,€and€inÏgeneral€diffusion.€Kohl€(1978:475)€asks€rhetorically€if€theÏ"world"€system€already€stretched€from€the€Balkans€and€the€NileÏto€the€Indus€in€the€4th€millennium.€In€her€comment€on€Kohl,ÏJoan€Oates€(1978:481)€reads€the€archaeological€record€toÏdisplay€"international"€horizons€from€at€least€the€middle€ofÏthe€5th€millennium€BC€onwards.€ÌÌKohl€(1989:227)€notes€that€"profit„motivated€trade€extendedÏfar€beyond€the€political€borders€of€any€state€and€connected€Ï...€[all€of€these]€into€a€single€world€system."€Ìà0p..pàÌà0p..pàForeign€trade€in€the€mid„3rd€millennium€was€anÏexceedingly€complex€process,€involving€the€movement€ofÏfinished€luxury€commodities,€raw€materials,€and€stapleÏproducts,€and€was€probably€conducted€both€by€state€agentsÏand€by€private€entrepreneurs....€It€does€show€thatÏdevelopments€in€southwestern€Asia€were€not€limited€to€theÏalluvial€plains€and€that€widely€separated€communitiesÏwere€linked€by€complex,€well„defined€exchange€networksÏ(Kohl€1978:€466).ÌÌò òó óThe€alluvial€plains€of€Mesopotamia€are€and€were€notoriouslyÏpoor€in€metals€and€timber,€which€they€had€to€import€from€oftenÏvery€distant€sources.€Following€Larsen€(1967),€Mitchell€AllenÏ(1986)€draws€a€map€centered€on€Assur.€It€imported€gold€andÏsilver€from€Anatolia€and€tin€and€other€metals€fromÏAfghanistan.€In€turn,€Assur€exported€textiles€to€both€and€re„¼exported€Central€Asian€Afghani€and/or€Iranian€tin€to€Anatolia.ÏHowever,€Assur€also€imported€textiles€and€perhaps€grain,Ïmainly€wheat€and€barley,€from€southern€Mesopotamia€and€paidÏfor€it€with€gold,€silver€and€other€metals€imported€fromÏAnatolia€and€Afghanistan.€However€this€map€also€illustrates€ofÏhow€the€aforementioned€vagaries€of€data€non/availability€canÏdistort€our€picture.€Allen€himself€[in€personal€communicationÏSeptember€1992]€points€out€that€he€centered€his€map€on€Assur,Ïò ònot€ó ó€because€it€was€a€center€„€it€was€a€"semi„periphery"€„€butÏbecause€we€don't€have€archival€or€other€evidence€of€where€itsÏcenter/core€was!€ÌÌMesopotamia,€in€turn€exported€wool,€textiles€and€grain€toÏvarious€parts€of€the€even€more€resource€poor€Persian€Gulf.ÏThis€region€also€was€a€fulcrum€for€and€dependent€on€trade€withÏOman€on€the€Arabian€Peninsula€in€the€South€and€the€IndusÏregion€in€the€East€„„€which€in€turn€had€connections€withÏCentral€Asia.ÌÌChristopher€Edens€(1990)€offers€a€"Review€of€Evidence"€forÏ"Indus„Arabian€Interaction€during€the€Bronze€Age."€He€refersÏto€timber,€textiles€and€foodstuffs€and€surveys€the€archaeological€record€for€trade€in€ceramics;€glyptic€seals;Ïmetal€objects,€mostly€copper/bronze€celts€or€flat€axes;€stoneÏweights;€beads;€soft€stone€vessels;€raw€materials,€which€wereÏmostly€only€transshipped€through€Harappan€hands;€semi„preciousÏstones;€ivory;€tin;€copper;€precious€metals€of€gold€and€silverÏfrom€a€wide€variety€of€sources;€shell;€bitumen€asphalt;€andÏbiotic€forms€like€zebu€and€sorghum.€ÌÌShereen€Ratnagar€(1981)€concentrates€on€the€trade€relationsÏbetween€Mesopotamia€and€the€Indus€Valley€but€also€discussesÏsome€other€trade.€She€discusses€partly€administered€and€partlyÏfree„lance€trade.€€Copper€came€from€Cyprus€and€the€Levant€asÏwell€as€Oman,€Iran€and€Afghanistan.€As€already€mentioned,€theÏrarer€tin€came€from€Anatolia,€the€Caucasus€and€Iran.€ScatteredÏcopper,€tin,€lead€and€zinc€as€well€as€gold€ores€also€wereÏsources€of€silver,€which€was€rarely€available€alone,€but€whoseÏmain€source€was€Anatolia€according€to€Marfoe€(1987).€€WoodÏcame€from€Meluhha€on€the€Indus,€Magan€in€Oman€and€Dilmun€atÏBahrain,€as€well€as€the€Siwaliks€and€Punjab€regions.€As€isÏwell€known,€Egypt€imported€wood€from€the€Levant.€Egypt€and/orÏNubia€in€turn€were€a€major€source€of€gold,€which€was€alsoÏexported€from€Arabia,€Armenia,€and€probably€the€Indus.€TheÏlatter€exported€timber,€copper,€gold,€ivory,€stones€and€beadsÏto€Mesopotamia€and€imported€food,€textiles,€silver€andÏearthenware.€Steatite€vessels€were€also€a€traded€item,Ïapparently€both€as€a€container€of€other€goods€and€as€a€tradeÏitem€in€itself.€However,€Ratnagar€observes€that€pottery€didÏnot€travel€over€very€long€distances,€presumably€because€of€itsÏweight,€which€made€cloth€and€reed€containers€more€suitable.€€ÌÌRatnagar€also€itemizes€trade€in€€precocities€like€ivory,Ïsteatite,€carnelian€beads,€dice,€bird€figurines,€conch€shells,Ïmonkey€figurines,€pearls,€and€lapis€lazuli,€the€latter€from€aÏsingle€source€in€Afghanistan.€€Trade€in€silver€seems€to€haveÏhad€a€special€role€as€a€currency€medium€of€exchange,€unit€ofÏaccount€and€store€of€value.€Archaeological€finds€of€weightsÏand€seals€from€distant€locations€also€attest€to€widespreadÏtrading€networks,€using€overland,€riverine,€coastal€and€seaÏtransport,€individually€and€in€combination.€Evidence€survivesÏof€individual€shipments€of€20€tons€of€copper,€and€exports€from€ÏAssur€to€one€small€town€has€been€estimated€at€some€100,000Ïtextiles€over€a€50€year€period.ÌÌòòóóSignificantly,€all€of€the€above€cited€authors€refer€to€regionsÏthat€are€almost€entirely€to€the€ò òSouthó ó€of€the€East„WestÏmountain€ranges,€which€run€across€much€of€Asia.ÌÌHowever,€in€his€tour€de€force€on€òòAncient€Metallurgy€in€theÏUSSR:€The€Early€Metal€Ageóó€[EMA],€€E.N.€Chernykh€(n.d.)€argues,Ïand€Philip€Kohl's€reiterates€in€his€"Introduction,"€€that€theÏdevelopment€of€metallurgy€was€an€increasingly€interconnectedÏand€shared€process€throughout€most€of€Eurasia€„€ò òNorthó ó€of€theÏmountains!€"The€world€system€itself€has€turned€out€to€be€farÏmore€extensive€than€appeared€earlier,"€(Chernykh€n.d.:369)Ïconcludes€in€a€fleeting€„€apparently€afterthought€„€referenceÏto€"world€system."€Nonetheless,€already€in€his€foreword€heÏalso€suggests€that€"from€at€least€the€fifth€millennium€BCÏuntil€the€third€millennium€BC,€the€peoples€of€the€EMA€cultural€zone€seem€to€have€shared€the€same€developmental€cycle:€theÏformation€and€decline€of€cultures€at€various€levels€generallyÏcoincided"€(p.€2).€In€his€closing€chapter,€he€returns€to€"theÏcontemporaneity€of€the€decline€and€formation€of€variousÏsystems€over€the€vast€expanse€of€Eurasia€and€the€Old€World€asÏa€whole...[when]€a€whole€chain€of€similar€systems€arose€almostÏsimultaneously,€from€the€Atlantic€to€the€Pacific:€theÏEuropean,€Eurasian,€Caucasian€and€Central€Asian€provinces,Ïalong€with€others€outside€the€USSR"€(365).€ÌÌIn€the€5th€and€4th€millennia€BC€already€there€was€"highlyÏdeveloped€commercial€exchange"€and€the€export€of€"hugeÏquantities"€of€copper€and€gold€from€mining€and€metallurgicalÏcenters€in€Thrace€and€the€Carpatho„Balkan€region€to€orelessÏconsuming€regions€in€Moldavia,€the€Western€Ukraine,€theÏDnieper€and€on€to€the€Volga.€However,€from€the€middle€orÏsecond€half€of€the€4th€millennium€"an€extensive€chain€ofÏCopper€Age€culture€began€to€break€up."€€With€the€significantÏdrop€of€metal€production€in€the€early€Bronze€Age,€theÏ"disappearance€[of€this€complex]...and€replacement€of€aÏculture€...€was€as€unexpected€as€its€appearance"€(87„93).€ÏKohl€(1984)€also€suggests€elsewhere€that€the€archaeologicalÏrecord€bespeaks€some€form€of€pre„historic€"silk€route"Ïconnection€to€China€two€thousand€years€before€the€classicalÏone.€Chinese€scholars€also€refer€to€the€same€even€earlier€atÏtheir€end€(cited€in€Frank€1992c).€ÌÌChernykh€(n.d.)€examines€interconnected€but€shiftingÏpredominantly€east„west€trade€nets€of€metals€and€theirÏproducts€across€much€of€Eurasia€north€of€the€mountain€ranges.ÏAs€we€will€note€below,€they€include€a€1,000€km€long€tin€tradeÏroute€in€the€mid„2nd€millennium.€However€[and€despite€theÏpolitical€confinement€of€his€research€to€the€former€USSR],€heÏalso€gives€at€least€some€glimpses€of€earlier€north„south€tradeÏrelations€into€Anatolia,€Iran,€and€Afghanistan€across€theÏmountains.€These,€in€turn,€would€also€have€linked€the€northernÏEur„Asian€trading€and€migratory€system€into€the€West€Asian,ÏGulf,€Arabian,€and€North€African€one/s.€ÌÌSo,€do€we€then€have€ò òtwoó ó€different€and€separate€world€systemsÏhere,€the€more€"traditional"€one€South€of€the€mountains€andÏthe€one€Chernykh€claims€to€see€North€of€the€Mountains?€Or€wereÏthey€part€and€parcel€of€ò òoneó ó€ò òsame€world€systemó ó,€whichÏencompassed€much€of€Afro„Eurasia€already€in€the€Bronze€Age?€ÌÌAt€least€two€kinds€of€evidence€support€this€latter€view€of€ò òoneÏsingle€world€systemó ó:€1.€There€also€were€extensive€andÏrecurrent€trade,€migratory€and€invasion,€as€well€as€cultural/Ïtechnological€diffusion,€ò òó óò òNorth„Southó ó€contacts€across€and/orÏaround€the€mountains€in€various€regions€from€AnatoliaÏeastward.€2.€There€is€substantial€ò òcoincidence€ofó ó€ò òtiming€ó óin€theÏlong€economic€cycle€phases€identified€independently€for€theÏNorth€by€Chernykh€and€for€the€South€by€Gills€and€Frank€as€wellÏas€herein€below.€This€temporal€coincidence€may€be€traceable€toÏecological€or€and/other€systemic€commonalities,€but€it€is€notÏvery€likely€to€be€only€coincidental.€Therefore,€there€ò òis€hardÏevidence€for€the€existenceó ó€ò òof€ó óò òòòoneóó€immense€Afro„Eurasian€wideÏworld€system€already€in€the€early€Bronze€Age.€ó ó€Therefore€also,€one€of€the€important€tasks€of€research€and€analysis€is€toÏinquire€into€the€earliest€time€and€source€of€its€developmentÏand€to€explore€its€[cyclical?]€expansion€and€transformationÏover€time.ÌÌThis€rather€more€extensive€rendition€of€the€extent€of€theÏworld€system€already€in€the€early„middle€Bronze€Age€is€alsoÏsimilar€to€my€own€suggestion€about€the€"Centrality€of€CentralÏAsia"€and€its€Silk€Road€in€the€formation,€development€andÏoperation€of€this€world€system€(Frank€1992c).€€Much€of€theÏdevelopment€of€the€outlying€civilizations€in€China,€India,ÏPersia,€Mesopotamia,€Europe,€etc.€can€only€be€accounted€forÏand€understood€through€their€relations€with€the€peoples€ofÏCentral€Asia,€many€of€whom€moreover,€migrated€to€into€East,ÏSouth€and€West€[Eur]€Asia.€One€of€my€theses€was€that€we€shouldÏnot€regard€the€emergence€of€Central€Asian€waves€of€migration,Ïoften€also€bringing€with€them€technological€advances€inÏproductive€and€warfare€techniques,€as€Deus€ex€MachinaÏintrusions€on€€"civilized"€societies€around€Central€Asia.€TheÏ"Pulse€of€Asia,"€to€recall€the€phrase€of€Huntington€(1907),Ïmay€be€in€its€center€(Frank€1992c).€Nonetheless,€theÏCentrality€of€Central€Asia€is€all€too€neglected€„„€also€in€myÏown€examination€of€the€geographical€extent€and€temporal€cyclesÏof€the€world€system€below!€ÌÌHowever,€the€same€may€and€need€probably€be€said€aboutÏSoutheast€Asia€as€the€fulcrum€of€trade,€invasion,€migrationÏand€cultural€diffusion€through€the€Indian€Ocean,€the€SouthÏChina€Sea,€and€the€Pacific€Ocean,€perhaps€already€in€BronzeÏAge€times,€but€certainly€since€the€Iron€Age.€Indeed,€there€isÏsome€evidence€€that€with€the€early€2nd€millennium€decline€ofÏHarappan€relations€to€the€West,€they€turned€southward,€asÏDales€suggests,€and€eastward€instead.€€Jonathan€FriedmanÏ(n.d.)€links€the€latter€in€with€the€emergence€of€the€tradingÏand€migratory€system€between€the€Indian€East€Coast€andÏSoutheast€Asia€and€the€Lapita€expansion€into€Melanesia€andÏPolynesia.€Does€that€imply€their€early€incorporation€in€thisÏworld€system€already€in€the€Bronze€Age?€I€will€explore€some€ofÏthe€later€territorial€expansion€of€the€world€system€also€toÏinclude€China,€Northeast€Asia,€and€Southeast€Asia€in€the€1stÏmillennium€BC€below.ÌÌòòBronze€Age€Cyclesóóòò€in€the€3rd€Millennium€BC€and€EarlieróóÌÌMany€authors€(Oppenheim,€Kohl,€Dales€and€others)€refer€toÏmarked€economic€decline€in€various€parts€of€West€Asia€from€theÏmiddle€of€the€3rd€millennium€BC.€€Indeed,€Edens€and€Kohl€noteÏthat€ÌÌà0p..pànumerous€commentators€have€observed€a€set€of€fundamentalÏsynchronisms€across€much€of€western€Asia€...€in€easternÏIran,€Central€Asia€and€the€Indus€...€in€the€mid€3rdÏmillennium€BC;€[and]€the€collapse€of€these€expressions€ofÏurban€complex€society,€now€extending€throughout€Iran,Ïinto€the€Gulf€and,€in€a€modified€way,€also€southernÏMesopotamia,€by€the€opening€centuries€of€the€2ndÏmillennium€BC€(Edens€&€Kohl€n.d.:23„24).ÌÌElsewhere,€Kohl€(1978)€quotes€A.L.€Oppenheim's€earlierÏobservations€about€Ur€to€the€effect€that€in€the€late€3rdÏmillennium€"a€process€of€gradual€and€slow€restriction€of€theÏgeographical€horizon€marks€the€entire€development€ofÏcommercial€connections.€We€may€well€assume€that€the€frequencyÏand€intensity€of€contact€had€reached€a€peak€early€in€the€thirdÏmillennium€B.C."€(Oppenheim€1954:12).€Jawad€(1965)€insists€onÏthe€ecological,€economic,€social€and€political€differences€ofÏnorthern€from€southern€Mesopotamia€at€this€time,€which€howeverÏwere€apparently€not€sufficient€to€exclude€the€North€from€thisÏsame€[cyclical?]€process.ÌÌà0p..pà'International'€relations€changed€over€the€greater€MiddleÏEast€during€the€first€half€of€the€third€millennium€with,Ïthe€collapse€of€the€proto„Elamite€'hegemony'€in€southernÏand€Central€Iran€...€according€to€€archaeologicalÏevidence€from€Central€Asia,€Baluchistan,€southeasternÏIran€and€the€Indus€Valley€...€across€the€Iranian€plateau,Ïin€the€Gulf€area€(particularly€the€Oman€peninsula),ÏMesopotamia,€the€Anatolian€plateau€and€the€Caucasus....ÏBut€it€is€unclear€what€happened€to€foreign€relations€inÏthe€later€third€and€early€second€millennia€with€theÏcollapse€of€Akkadian€rule€and€the€subsequent€rise€of€andÏdemise€of€the€highly€centralized€Ur€III€dynasty.€DalesÏ(l977)€explained€the€collapse€of€proto„urban€settlementsÏthroughout€the€Indo„Iranian€borderlands€(during€the€so„¼called€urban€phase)€as€due€to€the€cessation€of€long„¼distance€overland€trade€and€development€of€directÏmaritime€trade€between€Mesopotamia€and€the€Indus€Valley.ÏHis€theory€only€represents€an€unproven€hypothesis€butÏdeserves€serious€consideration€(Kohl€1984:242).ÌÌDales€(1976)€finds€a€definite€rhythm€in€"The€Shifting€TradeÏPatterns€between€the€Iranian€Plateau€and€the€Indus€Valley€inÏthe€Third€Millennium€B.C."€€Strong€trade€and€culturalÏinteraction€between€Central€Asia,€northern€Pakistan,€easternÏPersia,€and€points€west€characterized€the€first€half€of€theÏ3rd€millennium.€For€instance,€the€Turkemnian€Alty€TepeÏflourished,€but€then€declined€in€the€late€3rd€millennium.€€AtÏthe€same€time,€the€Afghan€Sistan€site€at€Shar„i€Sokhta€wasÏdestroyed€and€abandoned€in€the€3rd€millennium,€if€only€becauseÏthe€main€stream€of€the€Helmand€River€changed€course€[but€seeÏand€alternative€explanation€below].€Its€Helmand€ValleyÏcivilization€"totally€collapsed€by€2500€BC."€However,€theÏreasons€may€also€have€been€transregional.€Dales€refers€toÏwidespread€abandonment€of€sites€from€Central€Asia€throughÏSistan,€southern€Afghanistan€and€northern€Baluchistan€and€anÏalmost€total€break€in€trade€routes€and€spheres€of€interactionÏacross€their€trade€routes€and€then€a€shift€also€of€maritimeÏtrade€patterns€around€2500€BC.ÌÌIn€terms€of€the€present€inquiry,€these€observations€wouldÏimply€a€half€millennium€long€A€phase€during€the€first€half€ofÏthe€3rd€millennium€followed€by€a€half€millennium€long€B€phaseÏof€a€ò òoneó ó€millennium€long€cycle.€[How]€can€we€refine€these€3rdÏmillennium€phase€lengths€and€dates€to€be€more€consistent€withÏthe€about€ò òone€quarteró ó€millennium€long€A€and€B€phases€of€a€ò òhalf€millennium€long€cycleòòóóó ó,€which€Gills€and€Frank€observed€fromÏnear€the€beginning€of€the€2nd€millennium?€ÌÌTo€start€with,€it€may€be€important€to€pursue€Dale'sÏobservation€that€the€cycle€phases€seem€to€have€moved€in€a€WestÏ>€East€direction.€€However,€the€"phase€marker"€was€notÏabsolutely€synchronized€but€had€a€"sloping€horizon"€fromÏearlier€to€later,€moving€from€West€Asia€to€Central€Asia€andÏthe€Indus€Valley.€Though€Dales€does€not€say€so,€this€slopingÏhorizon€phase€marker€seems€to€begin€even€farther€East€andÏearlier€than€in€"West€Asia,"€that€is€in€Egypt.€Thus,€there€mayÏhave€been€a€shorter€[half€millennial]€cycle€whose€phases€wereÏnot€altogether€synchronous€over€the€entire€area.€Moreover,€ifÏthis€cycle€was€already€operational€in€the€3rd€millennium,€thenÏat€least€incipiently€perhaps€it€also€existed€already€in€theÏ4th€millennium€BC.€ÌÌPerhaps,€the€first€two€or€more€centuries€of€the€3rd€millenniumÏshould€be€regarded€as€an€A€phase.€The€period€3000€to€2800€BCÏalso€experienced€yet€another€of€the€200€year€long€waves€ofÏmigration€emerging€out€of€Central€Asia,€which€have€been€notedÏby€Gimbutas€among€others.€However,€Chernykh€(n.d.)€and€IÏ(Frank€1992c)€associate€these€waves€of€invasion€usually€with€BÏphases€of€world€system„wide€crisis.€ÌÌPeriods€[or€cyclical€phases?]€of€economic€expansion€andÏcontraction€are€remarked€on€by€various€authors€for€theÏfollowing€centuries.€E.N.€Chernykh€(n.d.:371)€notesÏdestabilization€throughout€the€Early€Metal€Age€communitiesÏfarther€north€in€Eurasia€during€the€second€quarter€of€the€3rdÏmillennium.€€The€27th€to€25th€centuries€were€"one€of€majorÏculture„historical€change€...€reflected€in€various€spheresÏ(political,€ethno„cultural,€productive€and€technological),Ïthemselves€clearly€interrelated."€€They€were€manifest€inÏWestern€Asia,€Asia€Minor,€and€the€more€northerly€regions€ofÏthe€Circumpontic€area€stretching€from€the€Adriatic€to€theÏUrals€and€Volga€in€the€east€and€the€Aegean€and€Asia€Minor€inÏthe€South€(158).€€"The€period€of€greatest€disruption€wasÏprobably€the€twenty„sixth€and€twenty„fifth€centuries€BC€(onÏthe€basis€of€a€series€of€calibrated€radiocarbon€dates)"€(371).ÌÌEdens€and€Kohl€(n.d.)€note€that€in€the€Indus€area€massiveÏurban€growth€occurred€2600/2500€BC,€and€even€more€spectacularÏdecline€around€or€after€2000€BC.€Urbanization€in€SouthernÏTurkmenistan€2600„2200€was€followed€by€population€shifts€orÏdispersion€eastward€from€there€and€other€Transcaucasian€areas.€ÏÌÌShereen€Ratnagar's€(1981)€account€of€òòEncounters:€The€WesterlóóòòyÏTrade€of€the€Harappa€Civilisationóó€summarizes€the€"relativeÏchronology€of€the€third€millennium"€for€each€of€theÏsites/regions€of€Barbar,€Umm€An€Nar,€Shahdad,€Yahya,€Shahr„i„¼Sokhta,€Bampir€V„VII,€Kulli,€and€Harappa.€The€respectiveÏperiods€of€maximum€€recorded€activity€in€her€Table€4.4€on€pageÏ213€begins€between€the€Mesopotamian€periods€ED€I€and€II€inÏ2750€for€each€of€these€sites/regions€except€Shahr„i„Sokhta€andÏHarappa,€where€they€begin€about€one€to€one€and€a€halfÏcenturies€later.€The€endings€of€the€periods€of€activity€marked€by€solid€lines€on€her€table,€followed€by€dotted€lines€endingÏin€question€marks,€fall€mostly€within€the€Mesopotamian€ED€IIIÏperiod.€In€five€of€these€sites/€regions,€the€fall€off€date€isÏbetween€2450€and€2350,€the€latter€for€Kulli€already€in€theÏAkkadian€period.€For€the€others€mostly€farther€East,€theÏperiod€of€decline,€followed€by€a€question€mark,€culminatesÏbetween€the€Akkadian€and€post„Akkadian€periods€around€2250€BC.€ÏOnly€Harappa,€farther€East€still,€continues€until€2000€orÏperhaps€even€1800€and€Barbar€on€the€Gulf€[to€which€we€returnÏbelow]€until€1800€BC€(Ratnagar€1981:€213,€Table€4.4).€However,Ïshe€also€says€that€"the€archaeologically€attested€tradeÏcontacts€of€the€Harappa€and€Mesopotamian€civilizations€are€theÏmost€numerous€in€the€ED€III€and€Akkadian€periods"€from€2500€toÏ2250€BC€(Ratnagar€1981:€204).€Elsewhere€in€an€unpublishedÏpaper€on€agriculture,€Ratnagar€(n.d.)€notes€"dramatic"Ïdeclines€of€both€the€sown€area€and€the€yields€of€wheat€in€theÏLagash€area€of€Mesopotamia€first€between€2400€and€2100€BC€andÏthen€still€further€declines€to€1700€BC.€She€also€notes€theÏtime€of€troubles€in€Egypt€from€2250€to€2035€BC,€whenÏstarvation€and€foreign€incursions€made€all€Pharaohs'€hold€onÏpower€short€lived.€Since€the€invaders€included€especiallyÏLybians,€the€implication€is€that€also€they€were€in€or€wereÏentering€this€world€system.€ÌÌKajsa€Ekholm€already€observed€thatÌÌà0p..pàin€the€period€around€2.300„2.200€B.C.€there€occurredÏserious€economic€crises€that€affected€much€of€the€MiddleÏEast€and€the€Eastern€Mediterranean.€Everywhere€there€isÏindication€of€decline€in€quality€and€quantity€ofÏproduction€that€was€usually€state€monopoly€and€orientedÏto€export.€Correlatively,€there€was€an€increase€of€localÏviolence€often€culminating€in€obliterating€warfare€andÏdestruction.€These€large€scale€crises€are€often€explainedÏby€barbarian€invasions,€but€it€is€just€as€likely€that€theÏviolence€is€internal,€the€only€migrants€being€"capital"Ïand€labor€forced€out€of€their€homes€by€acute€survivalÏproblems.€The€collapse€of€"supralocal"€space€leads€toÏaccelerating€competition€between€and€within€politicalÏunits,€that€is€to€warfare€and€intensified€class€struggleÏ(Ekholm€1980:165).€ÌÌSpeaking€of€warfare,€Melko€and€Wilkinson€(1992)€note€periodsÏof€heightened€warfare€in€and€around€Mesopotamia€in€the€27th,Ï25th€and€23rd€centuries€[but€none€yet€in€the€other€regions].ÌÌUrbanization€in€Southern€Afghanistan€also€culminated€afterÏ2500€and€abruptly€disappeared€after€2000€BC.€Settlement€inÏsouthwestern€and€southern€Iranian€peaked€around€and/orÏdeclined€after€the€second€half€of€the€3rd€millennium.€In€andÏaround€Oman€on€the€Arabian€peninsula€peak€copper€production,Ïbest€documented€at€the€Maysar€I€site,€was€late€in€the€3rdÏmillennium.€ÌÌThese€scattered€[jig„saw]€pieces€of€chronological€evidenceÌmay€not€[yet?]€suffice€to€identify€system„wide€cycles€duringÏthe€3rd€millennium.€In€summary,€the€datings€by€Edens€and€Kohl,ÏDales,€and€Ratnagar,€as€well€as€others€scattered€through€the€archaeological€literature,€all€attest€only€to€something€of€aÏgeneralized€or€generalizing€A€phase€expansion€during€the€firstÏhalf€and€a€major€B€phase€crisis€spreading€from€west€to€eastÏthrough€all€of€the€West€Asian€world€system€in€the€late€3rdÏmillennium€BC.€ÌÌYet,€it€seems€important€to€try€also€to€suggest€some€sort€ofÏshorter€cyclical€pattern,€even€if€only€in€a€tentative€way€andÏif€only€to€incite€others€to€refine€and€revise€it.€However€asÏKohl€reminds€us,€"it€is€important€to€realize€that€there€is€noÏuniversally€accepted€or€orthodox€Soviet€dating€system"€(KohlÏ19xx:n.p.).€Elsewhere€as€well,€"also€beware€of€3rd€millenniumÏdating.It€changes€a€lot€from€year€to€year,€depending€on€whoÏhas€found€what€most€recently"€(Mitchell€Allen€in€privateÏcommunication).€ÌÌI€shall€nonetheless€hazard€some€kind€of€cycle€dating€schemeÏwith€these€and€other€cautions€in€mind.€I€would€suggest€a€BÏphase€in€the€27th€to€26th€centuries€farther€West€and€26th€toÏ25th€centuries€farther€East.€€These€were€manifested€in€Ïdeclines€noted€during€these€centuries€in€West€Asia€by€scholarsÏfrom€Oppenheim€to€Edens€€and€then€farther€north„east€byÏChernykh.€Melko€and€Wilkinson€also€register€more€wars€for€theÏ27th€century€in€Mesopotamia.€Perhaps€the€26th€and€25thÏcenturies€again€witnessed€some€A€phase€recovery,€alsoÏreflected€in€Ratnagar's€notations€for€marked€activity€in€theÏmore€easterly€regions€beginning€around€2750€BC€and€endingÏmostly€around€2400€BC.€However,€Melko€and€Wilkinson€registerÏincreased€war€in€Mesopotamia€in€the€25th€century.€Edens€writesÏme€[in€an€August€25,€1992€personal€communication€perhaps€notÏintended€for€attribution€or€citation!]€that€"the€evidence€forÏthe€3rd€millennium€A€phase€suggests€that€it€begins€aroundÏ2600/2500€BC,€at€least€where€western€Asia€is€concerned,€i.e.ÏEarly€Dynastic€III€Mesopotamia."€Urban€growth€in€the€IndusÏValley€and€trade€between€it€and€other€regions€also€expand€soonÏthereafter.€However,€Edens€he€finds€the€end€of€this€phaseÏrather€"arbitrary."€Nonetheless,€I€would€suggest€that€anotherÏB€phase€may€have€begun€after€2400€as€per€Ratnagar€and/or€2300Ïas€per€Ekholm.€The€23rd€century€again€had€heightenedÏMesopotamian€wars€in€the€Melko€and€Wilkinson€table.€This€BÏphase€would€then€seem€to€last€towards€the€end€of€the€3rdÏmillennium.ÌÌUnfortunately,€Chandler's€(1987)€data€on€the€number€of€citiesÏand€their€sizes€as€recorded€by€Bosworth€(1992)€and€WilkinsonÏ(1991)€are€quite€inconclusive€for€this€early€period.€WilkinsonÏfollows€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)€and€only€begins€with€the€2ndÏmillennium.€The€data€only€begin€in€2250€BC€with€8€cities€inÏthe€region,€record€9€in€2000€BC€and€8€again€in€1800€BC,€plusÏone€in€India,€for€which€however€none€were€recorded€during€itsÏHarappan€civilization€prime€in€the€3rd€millennium.€€ÌÌSome€notable€shifts€in€settlement,€trade€and€perhaps€"centersÏof€gravity"€if€not€center„periphery€relations€may€also€beÏobserved€during€the€3rd€millennium€BC.€ÌÌOn€Harappa's€€Central€Asian€frontier,€late€3rd€millenniumÏsettlements€appear€in€Bactria,€Margiana,€and€the€Kopet€Dagh€piedmont€in€perhaps€previously€less€settled€areas.€NewÏevidence€shows€that,€excepting€perhaps€in€the€last€named,Ïurban€settlement€continues€and€only€shifts€location€throughÏthe€late€Bronze€Age€and€increases€into€the€Iron€Age.€AccordingÏto€Kohl€(1984,€1987),€this€evidence€contravenes€the€previousÏimpression€of€an€urban€collapse,€to€which€I€return€in€theÏdiscussion€below€of€the€B€phase€after€1750€BC.€He€also€arguesÏfor€the€probable€expulsion€of€Harappans€due€to€competition€forÏminerals€from€Afghanistan.€ÌÌThe€three€regions€of€Turkmenia,€southern€Afghanistan€includingÏSistan,€and€the€Indus€Valley€had€had€"widespread€contacts€andÏinterdependencies€from€the€end€of€the€4th€to€the€middle€of€theÏ3rd€millennium,€after€which€"they€went€their€own€ways."€UntilÏthen,€also€"formal€maritime€trading€activities€were€beingÏconducted€between€the€Indus€Valley€and€southern€MesopotamiaÏvia€the€Persian€Gulf."€The€Kulli,€the€closest€westerlyÏneighbors€of€the€Indus€Valley€Harappa,€may€€have€played€aÏmiddle€man€role€in€this€trade,€although€the€same€is€alsoÏdisputed.ÌÌMoreover,ÌÌà0p..pàThe€pre„Indus€connections€were€all€overland€withÏAfghanistan,€Iran€and€Turkmenia...[and]€gave€rise€toÏintermediary€settlements€in€Afghanistan€and€Iran€„€suchÏas€Tepe€Yaha,€Shar„i„Sokhta€and€Mundigak.€All€these€threeÏsites€lost€their€importance€and€came€to€their€last€stagesÏof€their€life€when€Mohenjo„darians€or€the€Mature€IndusÏpeople€began€to€forge€ahead€in€their€civilizationalÏadvance€by€capturing€the€world€trade€market€of€that€time.ÏThey€now€directly€approached€the€mineral€sourcesÏareas....€[Then]€it€was€the€direct€contact€with€the€GulfÏcountries€which€led€to€a€new€phase€of€expanding€trade€andÏconsequent€enricheness€by€both€the€Mohenjo„darians€asÏwell€as€by€the€people€of€the€Gulf....€There€was€shift€inÏthe€trade€routes€from€north€to€south€in€this€period,€andÏgreater€reliance€was€seen€on€òòsea€routeóó....€The€coastsÏfrom€Mesopotamia€down€the€Gulf€all€along€the€Arabian€seaÏto€Gujarat€is€littered€with€sites€bearing€evidence€of€theÏMature€Indus€period....The€Oman€sites€not€only€point€toÏconnections€with€the€Indus€valley,€but€they€have€a€markedÏrelationship€with€southeastern€Iran€sites....€But€theÏrise€of€the€Gulf€sites€seem[s]€to€coincide€with€the€riseÏof€Indus€cities€in€the€east....€The€important€thing€isÏthat€sea€connections€were€evident€only€in€the€MatureÏperiod,€neither€before€not€after€it....€As€a€matter€ofÏfact€it€was€because€of€the€Indus„Mesopotamia€contactsÏthat€there€was€a€rise€of€...€intermediate€sites€along€theÏPersian€Gulf€making€them€international....òòóó€(Shaikh€n.d.:Ï2„23€passim).ÌÌMy€only€doubt€would€be€whether€it€was€the€Harappans'€directÏcontact€with€the€Gulf€that€brought€expansion€and€richness€asÏShaikh€says;€or€the€other€way€around€whether€it€was€notÏgeneral€economic€expansion€that€brought€on€the€contact€withÏand€therefore€richness€of€the€inhabitants€both€of€the€IndusÏand€the€Gulf.̇In€the€Gulf€region,€settlement€and€economic€activity€seems€toÏhave€shifted€from€the€Arabian€coast€to€Bahrain.€Evidence€areÏthe€growth€of€Qala'€to€some€5,000€population€and€the€export€ofÏgrain€staples€from€Mesopotamia€to€Dilmun€in€the€closing€threeÏcenturies€of€the€millennium.€Harriet€Crawford€(1991:150)Ïsuggests€that€Gulf€states'€mercantile€rivalry€in€and€for€theÏcarrying€trade€between€Sumer€and€Omani€copper€as€well€as€withÏMeluhha€may€help€explain€this€shift.€ÌÌAs€€already€noted€above,€for€Edens€(1992:127„129)€populationÏgrowth,€urbanization€and€social€complexity€in€Dilmun€on€theÏGulf€is€probably€causally€and€dialectically€related€toÏMesopotamia€with€whom€it€exchanged€copper€for€cereals.€€TheseÏbecame€not€a€luxury€but€a€necessary€staple€import€into€theÏGulf€during€the€last€centuries€of€the€3rd€millennium.€TheÏBarbar€region€on€the€Gulf€is€the€only€one€in€Ratnagar's€above„¼cited€table€whose€high€tide€persists€into€the€2nd€millennium.ÏThe€period€2000„1750€BC,€that€is€in€the€next€A€phase,€"was€theÏperiod€of€the€Dilmun€trade€par€excellence"€according€to€EdensÏ(1992:132).€By€then,€however,€the€previous€Indus€connectionÏseems€already€to€have€languished,€since€only€fewÏarchaeological€finds€of€Harappan€origin€in€the€Gulf€regionÏdate€from€this€later€period€(Edens€1990:32,34).€After€that€„inÏanother€B€phase€as€we€will€see€„€Gulf€trade€"greatlyÏdiminished€in€volume€and€the€nature€of€goods€exchanged...€forÏat€least€several€centuries"€(Edens€1992:132).ÌÌIn€conclusion€of€this€review€of€the€3rd€millennium€BC,€we€mayÏask€with€Shereen€RatnagarÌÌà0p..pàwhether€the€eclipse€of€the€sea€trade€can€explain€theÏcollapse€of€the€Harappan€urban€system....€It€may€wellÏhave€been€a€significant€factor....€If€the€efficient€andÏwide„reaching€urban€system€of€the€Harappans€was€generatedÏby€trade€mechanisms€and€dominated€by€a€merchant€classÏbecome€powerful€by€its€successful€participation€in€anÏextensive€trade€network,€and€if€the€'markets'€for€thisÏmercantile€urban€system€dwindled,€as€has€been€arguedÏbefore,€€the€wealth€and€power€of€rulers€would€have€beenÏseriously€affected.€Repercussions€of€a€fall€in€theÏquantum€of€trade€could€also€have€been€felt€by€the€ruralÏpopulation,"€[if€only€through€the€move€back€to€theÏcountryside€of€newly€unemployed€urban€dwellers.€That€mayÏbe€how€Harappan€civilization]€"was€phased€into€oblivion"Ï(Ratnagar€1981:237,253).€ÌÌThe€dating€of€the€decline€and€fall€of€Harappa€is€still€inÏdispute€between€the€late€2nd€and€the€early€3rd€millennium€BC.ÏAvailable€carbon€14€dating€suggests€an€end€between€2100€andÏ2000€BC€(Ratnagar€1981:206),€that€is€during€the€end€of€whatÏalso€appears€to€be€a€more€generalized€B€phase.€€In€that€case,Ïperhaps€Harappa€was€phased€into€oblivion€also€as€a€consequenceÏof€this€late€3rd€millennium€long€B€phase€crisis€throughoutÏmost€of€the€world€system€in€West€Asia.€For€"in€conclusion,€theÏevolution€of€the€Indus€Valley€civilization€must€be€explainedÏhistorically:€that€is,€by€reference€to€those€larger€processesÏwhich€all€interacting€societies€of€West€Asia€were€experiencing€in€the€latter€half€of€the€third€millennium€B.C.€(KohlÏ1984:356).ÌÌIt€would€of€course€be€desirable€if€others€more€qualified€thanÏI€would€refine€the€dates,€places,€and€geographical€movement€ofÏthe€economic€cycle€and€to€explore€its€relation€to€shifts€inÏ"hegemony"€within€the€World€System€in€West€Asia€and€elsewhereÏduring€the€3rd€millennium€BC.€Perhaps€the€same€could€alsoÏthrow€further€light€on€the€center„periphery€structure€andÏregional€changes€in€who€was€able€and€not€to€sit€on€which€ofÏits€musical€chairs€at€what€times€„„€and€why.€Indeed,€suchÏresearch€and€analysis€might€also€assuage€rather€than€furtherÏdeepen€Philip€Kohl's€continuing€doubts€about€these€center„¼periphery€relations.€Andrew€and€Susan€Sherratt€(1991)€beginÏthis€task€for€the€late€3rd€millennium€but€concentrate€on€theÏ2nd€millennium,€as€we€will€note€below.ÌÌòòSecond€Millennium€BC€Cycles€in€the€Late€Bronze€AgeóóÌÌThe€extent€and€shape€of€the€world€system€at€the€beginning€ofÏthe€2nd€millennium€and€its€expansion/contraction€as€well€asÏhegemonial€shifts€through€the€late€Bronze€Age€still€remainÏless€clear€[at€least€to€me]€than€would€be€desirable.€KohlÏ(1987:23)€contends€that€there€was€no€direct€contact€from€oneÏend€to€the€other,€indeed€more,€that€"there€was€not€a€singleÏBronze€Age€world€system."€€A€late€3rd€millennium€gravitationalÏshift€to€the€Gulf€region,€which€continued€into€the€2ndÏmillennium,€was€noted€above.€In€Mesopotamia,€activity€shiftedÏnorthward€and€became€more€decentralized€with€many€smallerÏpolitical€units€until€the€rise€of€Babylon.€€Then,€"the€centralÏarea€of€the€Near€East,€from€the€Zagros€to€the€Mediterranean,Ïand€from€the€Gulf€to€the€Taurus€and€sometimes€beyond€to€theÏBlack€Sea,€appears€to€have€formed€a€natural€unit€...€and€thereÏwas€a€developed€network€of€routes€and€exchanges€within€theÏregion.€Egypt€is€conspicuously€absent"€(Larsen€1987:53).ÏHowever,€there€may€have€been€connections€to€Cyprus€and/or€theÏAegean.ÌÌKristiansen€(1992:34,31)€goes€further:€"Regional€interactionÏbetween€empires€of€productive€irrigation€agriculture€in€theÏNear€East,€commercial€city€states€in€the€Mediterranean,€nomadsÏto€the€north,€and€ploughland€agriculture€and€mineralÏexploitation€in€temperate€Europe,€created€a€rather€uniqueÏworld€system€from€appr.€2.000€B.C.€onwards€...€characterizedÏby€the€intensification€of€connections€...€forming€a€regionalÏhierarchy€of€indirect€C/P€[center/periphery]€relations."ÏHowever,€if€we€follow€Chernykh,€as€cited€above,€€this€"uniqueÏworld€system"€and€its€"intensification€of€connections"Ïextended€all€the€way€across€the€Eurasia€north€of€the€mountainsÏas€well.€ÌÌOn€the€other€side,€we€already€noted€above€that€with€theÏdecline€of€Harappan€civilization,€the€Indus€Valley€seems€toÏdrop€out€for€about€a€millennium,€at€least€in€regular€contactsÏwith€the€west.€However,€there€is€some€evidence€of€an€IndianÏturn€southward,€as€Dales€suggests,€and€eastward€instead.€€WeÏnoted€also€that€Jonathan€Friedman€(n.d.)€links€the€latter€inÏwith€the€emergence€of€the€trading€and€migratory€system€between€the€Indian€East€Coast€and€Southeast€Asia€and€the€LapitaÏexpansion€into€Melanesia€and€Polynesia.€ÌÌThe€identification€of€cycle€phases€in€the€world€system€byÏGills€and€Frank€(1992)€began€with€a€"B"€crisis€phase€from€1700Ïto€1500/1400€BC.€€This€implies€a€previous€"A"€phase€ofÏexpansion,€especially€if€the€3rd€millennium€ended€with€anÏearlier€long€B€phase.€€The€evidence,€however,€is€ambiguous;Ïand€confirmation€or€disconfirmation€of€phase€datings€byÏrecourse€to€Chandler's€city€census€is€still€uncertain€untilÏmuch€later€in€the€2nd€millennium.€Chandler's€census€remains€atÏ9€cities€in€2000€BC€and€in€1800€BC.€However,€there€is€anÏaddition€of€a€city€in€India,€that€Wilkinson€regards€asÏspurious€„„€and€that€comes€at€the€time€of€the€extinction€ofÏthe€Harappan€civilization€„„€which€may€also€have€continued€itsÏdecline€during€these€first€two€centuries€of€the€2ndÏmillennium.€The€decline€of€(southern)€€Mesopotamia€is€markedÏby€the€loss€3€of€its€6€cities€in€the€Chandler€census,€butÏEgypt€increased€from€3€to€5€cities.€The€A€and€B€long€cycleÏphases€and€their€dating€suggested€by€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)Ïare€at€least€not€disconfirmed€by€evidence€from€Chandler's€cityÏcensus.€Before€the€rather€firm€1200€BC€date€for€the€finalÏcrisis€of€the€2nd€millennium€bronze€age€however,€the€cityÏcensus€data€neither€inspire€additional€confidence€in€ourÏdating,€nor€do€they€offer€sufficient€guidance€to€a€definiteÏalternative€dating.ÌÌA€Phase€2000€„€1800/1750€BC€ÌÌBeginning€around€2000€BC,€a€region€centered€around€Bactria€andÏMargiana€in€Central€Asia€flourishes,€but€for€no€more€than€250Ïyears€ending€in€1800„1700€BC€according€to€€Hiebert€andÏLambert„Karlovsky€(1991).€I€noted€above,€however,€thatÏaccording€to€Kohl,€evidence€now€disputes€the€thesis€of€totalÏcollapse€of€urban€settlement€there€in€the€next€period.ÌÌThe€Gulf€trade€flourished€"par€excellence"€in€the€period€2000Ïto€1750€BC,€as€already€observed€in€the€discussion€of€DilmunÏabove.€Economic€activity€also€increased€in€Cilicia€and€CyprusÏand€then€also€Crete€and€the€Aegean.€There€Minoan€civilizationÏbegan€developing€in€close€economic€and€other€[center„¼periphery?]€relations€with€Egypt€and€the€Levant.€More€of€theÏMediterranean€and€its€coasts€are€incorporated€into€the€worldÏsystem.€Larsen€(1987)€describes€a€trading€system€centered€onÏthe€middle„man€role€of€the€relatively€small€Mesopotamian€cityÏof€Assur,€which€flourished€apparently€independently€during€theÏ19th€century€BC€and€then€was€absorbed€into€a€larger€politicalÏunit€until€Hammurabi€unified€the€whole€area€around€Babylon.ÌÌHarappan€civilization,€whose€decline€in€the€previous€B€phaseÏwas€noted€above,€may€however€also€have€hung€on€longer.ÏRatnagar€(1981:207)€also€considers€a€possible€end,€not€inÏ2000,€but€around€1800€BC.€The€later€date€would€be€during,€andÏmight€raise€some€doubt€about,€this€"A"€phase.€So€might€theÏ2000„1970€BC€wars€of€unification€in€Egypt€and€perhaps€the€ÏSumerian€wars€in€the€Mesopotamian€region€in€the€19th€centuryÏBC.€ÌÌB€Phase€1800/1750„1600/1500ÌÌChernykh€(n.d.:165)€notes€that€in€the€18th€to€17th€centuriesÏ"there€is€another€noticeable€increase€in€destructive€phenomenaÏmanifested€in€the€majority€of€Eurasian€cultures."€He€remarksÏon€"the€destabilization€of€the€ethno„cultural€and€politicalÏsystems€...€between€the€eighteenth€€century€BC€and€theÏsixteenth€century,€when€obvious€signs€of€universal€culturalÏcrises€and€mass€migrations€can€be€observed€...€throughout€theÏEastern€European€steppe€and€forest„steppe€...€[as€well€as]€inÏthe€eastern€Mediterranean"€(372)€to€which€Gills€and€FrankÏalready€referred.€Like€we,€Chernykh€also€€remarks€on€theÏsimultaneous€collapse€in€distant€China,€followed€later€in€theÏ16th€century€by€the€emergence€of€the€Shang€state.€€He€saysÏthat€a€whole€chain€of€cultures€disintegrated€and€new€ones€wereÏformed€in€their€place€(230)€and€that€in€the€16th€century€"inÏall€of€Eastern€Europe€as€in€other€regions,€completely€newÏethnocultural€communities€established€themselves"€(165).€ÌÌThere€is€evidence€of€decline€from€the€18th€century€BCÏelsewhere€as€well.€"The€Gulf€entered€an€apparent€period€ofÏdecline"€(Edens€1991:22),€in€which€maritime€trade€virtuallyÏceased€by€about€1750€BC€and€was€interrupted€for€severalÏcenturies€"marking€a€period€of€regional€social€disruption"Ï(Edens€1992:€132).€Simultaneous€crises€of€interlinkingÏhegemonies€were€also€noted€by€Gills€and€Frank€(1992).€TheyÏincluded€the€conquests€of€Anatolia€and€Mesopotamia€by€HittitesÏand€Kassites,€while€the€Hurrians€and€Hyksos€overran€the€LevantÏand€Egypt.€€That€is,€this€was€another€one€of€the€recurrentÏ[cyclical?]€200€year€long€periods€of€massive€migrationsÏprimarily€but€not€only€out€of€Central€Asia,€which€I€noted€inÏmy€study€of€the€latter€(Frank€1992c).€€This€period€ofÏsimultaneous€disintegration€of€hegemonies€was€accompanied€byÏinevitable€economic€disruptions€and€the€"disappearance€...€ofÏall€vestiges€of€social€reform€„€or€experiments€„€of€theÏHammurabi€era"€after€his€death€about€1750€BC€(Oppenheim€andÏReiner€1977:159).€€Melko€and€Wilkinson€(1992)€refer€to€anÏ"implosion"€in€Mesopotamia€but€not€until€the€16th„15thÏcenturies€BC.€Silver€(1985:161)€notes€the€onset€of€a€'DarkÏAge'€decline€of€urban€life,€but€his€later€and€rather€"precise"Ïdating€from€1600€to€1347€BC€is€difficult€to€accept.€€ÌÌBosworth€and€Wilkinson€both€find€that€Chandler's€city€censusÏconfirms€a€B€phase€during€this€period,€especially€in€Egypt,Ïwhich€drops€from€5€major€cities€in€1800€BC€to€3€in€1600€BC,Ïand€in€India.€Increases€are€registered,€however,€for€AsiaÏMinor€and€the€Aegean€toward€the€end€of€this€phase.€ÌÌThe€Sherrats€(1991:369„70),€who€concentrate€more€on€westerlyÏregions,€however€witness€"an€increase€of€scale€and€tempo,€withÏthe€corresponding€friction€of€growth,€between€1700€and€1400ÏBC....€The€political€consequences€of€this€enlarged€scale€ofÏactivity€were€to€create€new,€expansive€power„centres€on€theÏedges€of€the€system,€which€sought€to€achieve€independence€andÏextend€their€control€over€the€centre."€€This€increase€inÏscale,€which€is€not€uncommon€in€periods€of€crisis€also€in€theÏmodern€world€system€(Frank€1978a),€also€helped€set€the€stageÏfor€the€next€A€phase€expansion.€Ì‡ÌA€Phase€€1600/1500€„€1200€BCÌÌChernykh€(n.d.)€€regards€the€period€beginning€with€the€16thÏcentury€BC€and€until€the€13th€and€12th€centuries€BC€as€one€ofÏ"stability."€Then€"a€whole€chain€of€new€metallurgicalÏprovinces,€stretching€from€the€Pacific€to€the€Atlantic,€wasÏformed.€The€technology€of€casting€thin„walled€tools€andÏweapons,€and€the€production€of€tin„bronzes€spread€explosivelyÏthrough€this€entire€area."(n.d.:€372„3)€€In€the€16th€and€15thÏcenturies,€€from€the€Dnieper€eastward€there€was€a€sharpÏincrease€in€the€amount€of€mining€in€new€copper€and€tin€oreÏareas€in€the€Urals,€Kazakhstan,€the€Altai€and€both€sides€ofÏLake€Baikal.€"The€huge€scale€of€mining€in€a€number€of€theÏmines€is€astonishing"€(231).€The€"volume€of€mining€reachedÏtruly€fantastic€proportions":€For€instance€2€million€metricÏtons€of€ores€were€mined€and€some€100,000€tons€of€copper€wereÏsmelted€at€just€two€Kazakh€copper„ore€deposits.€There€wereÏ"specialized€settlements€of€professional€miners,€metallurgistsÏand€metalworkers"€(231„35).€There€was€a€1,000€kilometer€tradeÏroute€for€tin€(235),€and€copper€ore€was€transported€300€kmÏthrough€the€mountains€(243).€"Steppe€and€forest„steppe€peoplesÏhad€a€uniform€economy€and€were€very€closely€connected€to€oneÏanother.€Cultures,€it€appears,€were€not€isolated€but€consistedÏof€open€systems:€economic,€ideological,€and€kin„basedÏinterconnexion€and€exchange€were€not€only€possible€but,€veryÏprobably,€actively€encouraged"€(236).€Chernykh€(n.d.:290,313„¼4)€also€finds€increased€interaction€between€Eurasian€andÏEuropean€provinces€between€the€14th€and€12th€centuries.ÏStrangely€however,€Chernykh€also€remarks€on€a€"significantÏterritorial€rupture€between€...€Eurasian€and€European€systems"Ïat€this€time€(288).ÌÌAn€upward€phase€of€Tumulus€culture€in€North„Central€EuropeÏbetween€1600€but€especially€from€1500€to€1250€BC€also€appearsÏin€diagrams€by€Kristian€Kristiansen€(1992).€€In€Europe,ÏKristiansen€(19xx:30)€notes€"an€expansion€phase.€Suddenly,Ïwithin€a€generation€at€about€1500€B.C.€the€fully€fledgedÏchiefdom€structure€emerged€in€northern€Europe€...€[in]€aÏperiod€of€conspicuous€wealth€[that]€lasted,€with€some€ups€andÏdowns,€from€1500€to€1100€B.C.,€but,€already€in€the€later€partÏ...€declined."€Kristiansen€(1992:22)€also€remarks€on€expansionÏfrom€1500€onward,€along€with€a€shift€in€trade€of€northernÏEurope€with€the€Mediterranean€area€from€an€eastern€axis€viaÏthe€Danube€and€Black€Sea€towards€the€Western€Mediterranean€andÏItaly€instead€via€the€Rhone€Valley.ÌÌÌFor€the€Sherratts€(1991:370)€also,€"these€two€centuries€[1400„¼1200€BC]€are€somewhat€arbitrarily€separated€from€the€precedingÏphase,€and€mark€the€climax€of€the€palatial€trading€system€andÏthe€political€frameworks€within€which€it€was€carried€out."ÏLike€Gills€and€Frank€(1992),€the€Sherratts€underline€theÏexpansion€of€the€Hittites€and€Assyrians,€but€also€a€majorÏphase€of€urbanization€in€Cyprus,€the€importance€of€Rhodes,€andÏa€shift€from€Crete€the€Greek€mainland.€They€also€remark€on€theÏrelated€"intensive€diplomatic€activity"€among€blocs€andÏothers.€Similarly,€Mario€Liverani€(1987:€67)€also€remarks€on€the€exceptionally€high€frequency€of€paritetical€treaties€inÏthe€15th€to€13th€centuries.€ÌÌAlso,€Kassite€Babylonia€was€in€its€"phase€of€greatestÏprosperity"€during€the€late€15th€through€the€late€13thÏcenturies,€which€€"mark€the€longest€period€of€stable€politicalÏintegration€and€economic€prosperity€in€€Babylonian€history"Ï(Edens€1991:10).€New€cities€were€founded€and€old€ones€built€upÏfurther,€Edens€notes.€€Babylonia€then€extended€itsÏadministration€over€Dilmun€and€maintained€wide€rangingÏrelations€with€lands€to€the€West€in€a€"diplomatic€world€[that]Ïpitted€Egypt,€Babylonia,€Hatti,€Mitani€and€Assyria€on€anÏimperial€struggle€for€client€states€in€Syro„Palestine"€(EdensÏ1991:11).€Nonetheless,€the€Mesopotamian€region€experienced€aÏlong€peace€from€1380€to€1331€BC€(Melko€and€Wilkinson€1992).ÌÌGills€and€Frank€(1992)€had€observed€that€ÌÌà0p..pàdominant€but€inter„linking€hegemonies€were€the€HittiteÏempire,€based€in€Anatolia€and€the€dominant€in€northernÏMesopotamia,€and€the€empire€of€New€Kingdom€Egypt.€€TheÏperiod€was€clearly€marked€by€the€prominence€of€inter„¼linking€hegemonies,€including€Babylon,€Assyria,€andÏMitanni,€all€of€which€took€a€full€part€in€the€wellÏdeveloped€diplomatic€discourse€of€the€period.€€There€wasÏfor€a€time€something€like€a€concert€of€powers€among€theseÏinter„linking€hegemonies.€The€Mycenaean€trade€supplantedÏthe€Minoan€in€the€East€Mediterranean.ÌÌThe€Sherratts€summarize:ÌÌà0p..pàThis€[1400„1200€BC]€period€represents€the€climax€of€bulkÏmaritime€trade€in€the€Bronze€Age.€€It€differs€from€€theÏ15th€century€patterns€in€the€disappearance€of€Cilicia€andÏCrete€as€major€centres€in€their€own€right,€and€theÏemergence€of€Cyprus€as€a€major€international€trader....ÏThe€system€thus€seems€to€have€differentiated€into€twoÏcomponents:€a€major€long„distance€international€routeÏmarked€by€port€towns€and€emporia€such€as€Tell€abu€Hawam,ÏUgarit,€Enkomi,€Ialysos,€Kommos,€and€stations€like€MersaÏMatruh,€and€operated€by€ships€with€largeÏcargoes...heavily€capitalises€and€partly€state€dependent;Ïand€a€series€of€cycles€operated€by€long„distance€ships€ofÏsmaller€capacity€in€the€west,€some€controlled€fromÏmainland€centres€but€many€under€less€centralisedÏcontrol....€Not€all€this€activity,€however,€should€beÏimagined€as€the€peaceful€growth€of€commerce.€Factors€ofÏinternational€competition€are€evident€in€the€insecurityÏof€the€Levant€revealed€by€Amarna€letters€...€[and]€EgyptÏand€the€Hittites€clashed€at€Kadesh€in€1284€(SherrattÏ1991:372,€373).€ÌÌThis€A€phase€expansion,€which€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)€had€datedÏonly€from€1400€to€1200€BC,€thus€probably€began€at€least€oneÏand€perhaps€two€centuries€earlier€in€1500/1600€BC.€BosworthÏinterprets€Chandler's€city€data€to€"lend€strong€support"€toÏthis€period€as€an€A€phase€as€proposed€by€Gills€and€Frank.ÏWilkinson€treats€it€as€a€"rally,"€despite€some€misfitting€data€and€notes€4€political€economic€"peaks"€in€the€period€1600„1400ÏBC€and€six€peaks€in€the€succeeding€period€from€1400€to€1200ÏBC.€However,€from€1360€BC€to€1200€BC,€the€total€number€ofÏmajor€cities€declines€by€one,€and€also€by€one€each€in€each€ofÏthe€Aegean/Mediterranean,€Asia€Minor,€Egyptian€and€LevantÏregions.€ÌÌThe€beginnings€of€the€introduction€of€iron,€especially€inÏweapons€but€also€in€tools,€initiated€the€beginnings€of€a€majorÏtransition€„„€and€the€final€crisis€of€the€Bronze€Age.€ÌÌB€Phase€1200€„€1000€BC€ÌÌThis€B€phase€is€most€remarkable,€and€has€oft€been€noted,€as€aÏperiod€of€major€crisis,€indeed€of€"dark€ages."€They€alsoÏspelled€the€end€of€Bronze€Age€civilization€and€its€definitiveÏreplacement€by€the€new€Iron€Age.€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)Ïrecalled€how€Gordon€Childe€(l942:€185)€already€remarked€thatÏ"the€Bronze€Age€in€the€Near€East€ended€round€about€1200€B.C.Ïin€a€dark€age....€Not€in€a€single€State€alone€but€over€a€largeÏpart€of€the€civilized€world€history€itself€seems€to€beÏinterrupted;€the€written€sources€dry€up,€the€archaeologicalÏdocuments€are€poor€and€hard€to€date."€Liverani€(1987:€69,€71)Ïalso€comments€on€"the€collapse€of€Near€EasternÏCivilization...[whose]€crisis€is€rather€extended€and€takesÏplace€at€roughly€the€same€time€over€a€large€area."€He€alsoÏobserves,€this€scarcity€of€surviving€documentation€"is€notÏfortuitous€...€[but]€is€itself€an€effect€of€the€crisisÏ(eclipse€of€scribal€schools€and€palace€administrations)."€€ForÏinstance,€576€years€of€Kassite€domination€in€Mesopotamia€cameÏto€and€end€in€1171€BC.€The€Cretan€based€Mycean€civilizationÏcame€to€an€end€about€the€same€time.€It€was€again€a€time€ofÏ[for?]€another€200€year€long€wave€of€migration,€this€time€ofÏIndo„Europeans€eastward€toward€the€Tarim€Basin€and€ofÏArameans,€Dorians€and€others€southwestward€into€the€Levant€andÏGreece€(Frank€1992c).ÌÌChernykh€echoes€this€same€theme€when€he€writes€thatÌÌà0p..pàthese€processes€of€widespread€migration€and€the€relatedÏcollapse€of€cultural€systems€reached€a€peak€in€the€11th„¼10th€centuries€BC.€Archaeologically€speaking,€this€is€theÏboundary€between€the€Bronze€Age€and€the€Iron€Age€„€andÏone€of€the€most€significant€and€critical€periods€in€theÏhistory€of€the€peoples€of€the€Old€World€(ChernykhÏn.d.:373).€ÌÌ"There€was€a€sharp€decline€in€the€production€of€bronzeÏartefacts€throughout€the€Eurasian€steppe€at€the€end€of€theÏLBA"€[Late€Bronze€Age]€(322).€€From€1200€to€1000€BC,€he€alsoÏnotes€a€"collapse€of€the€system"€in€the€Irano„Afghan€province.Ï"Settlements€disappear...€the€settled€way€of€life€apparentlyÏchanged€to€mobile€pastoralism"€(326).€There€was€a€similarÏfalloff€in€metal€production€throughout€the€northeast€BalkansÏand€Carpathans€(323)€and€a€sharp€increase€in€mobileÏsubsistence€strategies€(299).ÌÌKristiansen€(1992:23)€relates€the€"collapse"€of€theÏMediterranean€and€Near€Eastern€regional€systems€shortly€afterÏ1200€also€to€Europe€and€refers€to€evidence€of€mercenaries€andÏlater€southward€migrations€from€Central€Europe€and€theÏBalkans.€In€Europe,€agriculture€became€more€dominant€andÏpolitical€organization€less€chiefly€and€more€"populist€andÏwith€a€more€"democratic€ideology,"€in€more€decentralizedÏpolitical€organization.ÌÌPeter€James€et€al€(1991)€writing€under€the€title€òòCenturies€ofÏDarknessóó€also€agree,€and€moreso,€thatÌÌà0p..pàthe€term€'Dark€Age'€seems€like€an€understatement€when€theÏarchaeological€remains€from€Babylon€...€examined....ÏThere€can€be€no€doubt€that€in€many€parts€of€the€Old€WorldÏthere€was€a€dramatic€collapse€at€the€end€of€the€LateÏBronze€Age.€The€centralized€economies€controlled€from€theÏpalaces€disintegrated,€the€old€trading€markets€broke€up,Ïdiplomatic€contacts€were€lost€and€major€settlements€wereÏabandoned....€Ten€separate€interpretations€of€the€eventsÏat€the€end€of€the€Late€Bronze€Age€can€be€discerned€...Ï[including]€cultural€decadence€[a€la€Toynbee]Ï...climactic€catastrophes€...€and€invasions€by€outsideÏbarbarians€„€notably€the€Sea€à0(..(àPeoples€[and€others]....ÏSuch€'external'€causes€areÏrarely€convincing€because€theyÏcannot€themselves€show€why€theÏcivilised€society€was€unable€toÏcope€(James€1991:279,311).€ÌÌKristiansen€(1987:84)€notes€that€"with€the€decline€ofÏinternational€exchange€networks€of€prestige€goods€at€theÏtransition€to€the€Iron€Age,€the€whole€system€of€center/Ïperiphery€relations€collapsed.€The€various€regions€developedÏautonomous€cultural€and€economic€traditions."€SherrattÏ(n.d.:13)€also€remarks€how€"in€the€final€centuries€of€theÏsecond€millennium€...€the€long„distance€north„south€links,Ïhowever,€temporarily€slackened:€The€Nordic€regions€developedÏon€its€own,€without€plentiful€supplies€of€metal€from€furtherÏsouth."€However,€ÌÌà0p..pàthe€collapse€of€large„scale€inter„regional€tradingÏsystems€began€in€the€most€heavily€capitalised€areas,€andÏits€effects€reached€outward€to€involve€all€the€palaceÏeconomies€which€were€dependent€on€them....€Ugarit€...€wasÏpermanently€destroyed€some€time€shortly€after€1200€BC,Ïalong€with€neighboring€Atchana€and€Carchemish.€€TheÏrecession€in€Syria€which€followed€these€destructions€hadÏfurther€effects€on€the€Hittite€hinterland,€and€asÏeconomic€difficulties€exacerbated€local€unrest,€leadingÏto€the€destruction€of€Bogazky€itself€at€this€time.€€TheÏAssyrians€under€Tglath€Pielser€I€(c.€1100)€took€advantageÏof€this€unstable€situation€to€invade€Syria€and€theÏLevant,€before€the€shift€of€power€to€semi„nomadic€ArameanÏtribes€caused€a€fundamental€decentralisatiion€of€localÏeconomies€(and,€incidentally,€a€new€set€of€inland€routesÏmade€possible€by€use€of€the€dromedary)€(Sherratt€1991:Ï373,374).̇In€Babylonia,€Kassite€decline€began€with€the€Assyrian€invasionÏin€1225€but€culminated€in€their€ouster€in€1157€BC.€Then,Ï"political€authority€was€increasingly€decentralized,€asÏperipheral€provinces€detached€themselves€from€effective€stateÏcontrol€and€...€'tribalized'"€(Edens€1991:11).ÌÌGills€and€Frank€noted€that€at€the€same€time,€the€Mycenaeans€inÏGreece€and€the€Levant€were€overrun€by€new€waves€of€invasions,Ïwhich€included€the€Dorians,€Aramaeans€and€Phoenicians.€TheÏHittite€empire€disintegrated.€The€Kassite€dynasty€in€BabyloniaÏcollapsed.€Political€power€almost€everywhere€was€unstable€andÏshort€lived.€Egypt€was€invaded€by€the€Sea€Peoples.€TheÏMesopotamian€region€experienced€the€Aramean€Wars€beginning€inÏthe€11th€century,€and€from€the€12th€century€onwards€the€AryanÏwars€raged€in€India.€ÌÌChandler's€data€on€cities€also€support€the€B€phase€designationÏaccording€to€Bosworth€and€seem€to€mark€"a€genuine"€B€phase€forÏWilkinson.€The€growth€of€cities€stagnates;€the€number€of€majorÏones€declines€a€bit;€and€€Hittite€and€Aegean€cities€disappearÏfrom€the€list€altogether.€Wilkinson€notes€a€marked€decline€ofÏpolitical€economic€"peaks"€from€6€between€1400€and€1200€BC€toÏonly€one€between€1200€and€1000€BC€and€observes€"a€moreÏnoticeable€character€of€disintegration€...€than€in€precedingÏcenturies."€ÌÌHowever,€these€"dark€ages,"€are€often€dated€to€have€lasted€upÏto€350€years€and€well€into€the€1st€millennium.€This€questionsÏis€the€principal€concern€of€Peter€James€et€al€(1991)€inÏòòCenturies€of€Darknessóó.€€They€demonstrate€inconsistencies€andÏhiatuses€in€regional€datings€of€the€crisis,€which€sometimesÏleave€350€year€gaps€during€which€on€the€evidence€as€good€asÏnothing€seems€to€have€happened.€In€his€review€Sherratt€(1991b)Ïaccords€them€more€success€in€demonstrating€the€dating€problemsÏthan€in€resolving€them€by€their€readjustment€of€the€relationÏbetween€dating€sequences€in€Egypt€and€elsewhere.€However,€toÏthe€extent€that€the€shortening€of€the€crisis€period€by€JamesÏet€al€is€well€taken,€Gills€and€Frank's€(1992)€and€the€presentÏotherwise€more€uncertain€dating€of€1000€BC€as€the€end€of€thisÏB€phase€and€the€beginning€of€the€next€A€phase€also€gains€inÏcredibility.ÌÌIn€summary€for€the€Bronze€Age€and€especially€the€2ndÏmillennium€BC,€we€can€conclude€that€there€seems€to€beÏsubstantial€evidence€for€the€existence€of€a€real€cycle€withÏlong€A€phases€of€expansion€and€B€phases€of€slower€growth,Ïcontraction,€crisis€and€even€long€dark€ages.€In€the€2ndÏmillennium€BC,€this€cycle€is€marked€by€€alternating€phases,Ïwhich€we€can€tentatively€dateÌA:€2000„1800/1750,€B:€1800/1750„1600/1500,€A:€1600/1500„1200,€ÌB:€1200„1000€BC.€A€phases€witness€faster€growth€in€productionÏand€trade€and€urban€development,€which€are€apparentlyÏaccompanied€by€more€extensive€hegemonic€rule€and€greaterÏpolitical€stability.€B€phases€are€marked€by€economic€and€urbanÏdecline,€by€more€massive€migrations/invasions,€sharpenedÏsocial€and€political€conflict€both€"domestically"€andÏ"internationally,"€and€accelerated€ethnic€and€culturalÏdiffusion€or€fusion.€€Moreover,€these€phases€and€their€manifestations€seem€already€to€be€remarkably€synchronized€Ïover€an€immense€area€stretching€across€Afro„Eurasia€fromÏEurope€and€the€Mediterranean€through€West€and€Central€Asia€toÏEastern€Siberia.€Hopefully€the€outline€above€offers€a€basisÏand€framework€for€devoting€much€greater€attention€for€the€2ndÏmillennium€BC€also€to€questions€that€had€to€be€left€implicitÏand€unanswered€above:€Was€there€also€a€"sloping€horizon"€ofÏcyclical€displacement?€What€were€the€related€regional€shiftsÏin€center„periphery€positÌion€and€the€ups€and€downs€of€hegemony€and€rivalry€within€thisÏvast€world€system?€Was€there€also€already€a€hegemonial€centerÏof€the€system€as€a€whole,€and€if€so,€where,€when€and€how€didÏit€shift?€€ÌÌDoubt€also€persists€about€the€extent€and€timing€ofÏparticipation€of€India,€Southeast€Asia,€China€and€Manchuria„¼Korea„Japan€in€this€2nd€millennium€BC€Bronze€Age€world€system.ÏIt€remains€less€than€clear€whether€the€regions€in€India,€whichÏwere€incorporated€in€the€world€system€in€the€3rd€millenniumÏBC,€"dropped€out"€or€only€temporarily€"involuted"€in€a€longÏ"dark€age"€of€their€own.€that€would€be€analogous€to€what€wouldÏbefall€Western€Europe€two€millennia€later.€Or€did€its€peoplesÏalready€turn€eastward€towards€Southeast€Asia€in€the€2ndÏmillennium€BC€and€not€only€in€the€1st?€Events€in€the€ChineseÏregion€seem€synchronized€for€a€time€with€those€elsewhere,Ïaccording€to€Chernykh;€but€does€this€really€mean€participationÏalready€so€early€of€"China"€in€the€world€system?ÌÌòòSome€Problems€in€Exploring€the€World€System€and€Dating€itsÏCycles€in€the€1st€Millennium€BC€Iron€AgeÌóóÌExtending€this€exploration€of€the€spread€of€the€world€systemÏand€the€identification€of€its€long€cycles€through€the€€1stÏmillennium€€BC€Iron€Age€would€be€desirable.€However,€even€Ïthough€this€period€is€more€recent,€€at€the€moment€it€is€moreÏproblematic€[at€least€for€me]€to€do€so€than€for€the€2ndÏmillennium€or€even€than€for€the€3rd.€There€are€both€academicÏand€real€world€reasons€for€these€problems,€and€perhaps€theÏformer€reflect€the€latter.€Among€the€academic€reasons€are€thatÏfor€the€1st€millennium€BC€Chernykh's€review€of€[northern]ÏEurasia€offers€a€less€detailed€guide€through€the€cycles€ofÏ"northern"€Eurasia.€Other€sources€are€also€less€systematicÏand/or€complete,€particularly€regarding€the€more€easterlyÏregions€of€the€world€system.€Especially€for€these€regions,ÏChandler's€city€data€as€analyzed€by€Wilkinson€and€Bosworth€areÏalso€less€complete€or€reliable.€They€display€more€€ambiguityÏregarding€the€identification€and/or€dating€as€well€as€theÏregionality€of€the€cycle€phases€for€the€1st€than€for€the€2ndÏmillennium.ÌÌThe€"real"€world€reasons,€probably€also€underlying€theÏ"academic"€ones,€for€these€problems€is€that€the€world€systemÏitself€seems€to€have€experienced€dramatic€expansion€andÏtransformation€during€the€1st€millennium€BC.€In€particular,ÏIndia€became€more€[re]integrated,€and€Southeast€Asia€and€ChinaÏdefinitively€joined€the€world€system.€While€so€doing€however,Ïdevelopments€in€the€East€seem€to€have€been€more€rapid€albeitÏless€recorded,€even€while€the€West€of€the€growing€world€system€experienced€long€and€better€recorded€B€phases.€AlthoughÏregional€rising€suns€during€systemic€B€phases€are€not€unusual,€Ïin€this€case€their€large€scale€but€poor€recording€in€a€sort€ofÏbifurcation€of€the€world€system€present€additionalÏdifficulties€for€the€exploration€of€the€extent€of€the€systemÏand€the€dating€of€its€cyclical€phases€„„€at€least€for€theÏpresent€writer€and€for€now.€ÌÌTherefore,€but€also€to€avoid€lengthening€this€essay€beyond€allÏbounds,€I€extend€it€into€the€1st€millennium€BC€only€moreÏsummarily€and€briefly.€That€is,€I€opt€for€a€compromiseÏsolution€through€1.€a€brief€general€discussion€of€the€worldÏsystem's€extension€and€transformation€and€2.€only€a€summaryÏboth€of€the€cycle€dating€previously€proposed€by€Gills€andÏFrank€(1992)€and€the€revisions€that€might€be€appropriate€onÏthe€basis€of€the€Bosworth€and€Wilkinson€"tests"€with€cityÏcensus€data€and€other€more€recently€available€information.ÌÌIn€general€during€this€period,€economic€and€political€crisisÏseems€to€prevail€more€in€the€West,€while€regions€to€the€EastÏmay€have€been€laying€the€basis€for€more€accelerated€growthÏin/from€the€mid€„€1st€millennium.€€This€growth€in€the€East€mayÏalso€foreshadow€its€approaching€inclusion€in€the€"CentralÏWorld€System."€€A€birds€eye€review€of€these€world€systemÏextending€transformations€may€be€attempted€going€from€West€toÏEast.ÌÌÌBeginning€with€Europe€in€the€West€of€the€world€system€"itÏmight€be€suggested€that€the€structural€divergences€createdÏduring€the€first€millennium€B.C.€between€northern€Europe,Ïcentral€Europe€and€the€Mediterranean,€determined€the€laterÏcourse€of€European€history€by€the€establishing€structuralÏfoundations€upon€which€it€came€to€rest,€e.g.€the€limits€of€theÏRoman€empire€in€Europe"€(Kristiansen€1992:35).ÌÌTransformations€in€West€Asia€are€summarized€by€Ghirshman:€Ì€Ìà0p..pàThe€first€half€of€the€first€millennium€B.C.€was€a€turningÏpoint€in€human€history.€The€centre€of€'world€politics'€Ïor€of€the€age€shifted€...[from€alluvial€valleys€in€theÏsouth]€more€to€the€north...that€the€struggle€for€worldÏpower€was€centered...[among]€three€principal€actors€onÏthe€drama:€the€Semitic€Assyrians€with€their€vast€empire;ÏUrartu,€a€powerful€€kingdom€of€Asiatic€origin,€tenaciousÏopponents€of€the€Assyrians...and€finally€the€Aryans,€theÏIranians€who,€after€a€long€and€arduous€struggle,Ïtriumphed€over€their€two€adversaries€and,€with€theÏspoils,€founded€the€first€World€Empire€[under€theÏAchaemenid€kings€from€the€5th€century€onwards].€Ì€Ìà0p..pàThere€was€a€shift€in€the€centre€of€gravity€of€exportingÏcountries.€Assyria,€which€was€a€great€consumer,€had€noÏiron€mines;€for€a€time,€especially€during€the€earlierÏhalf€of€the€eight€century€B.C.,€it€was€denied€access€toÏthe€mining€centres€of€the€southern€coast€of€the€Black€SeaÏand€Transcaucasus€by€the€neighboring€kingdom€of€Urartu.ÏInevitably€it€turned€its€attention€to€Iran....[which€Ìà0p..pàobtained€this€metal€from€regions€inaccessible€to€Assyria]Ï(Ghirshman€1954òòóó:€75,€88).€ÌÌThis€period€in€the€mid€1st€millennium€BC€was€called€the€"AxialÏAge"€by€Karl€Jaspers€(1949/1953),€who€regarded€it€as€theÏturning€point€in€human€history.€He€also€noted,€like€FrederikÏTeggart€(1939)€and€William€McNeill€(1963)€more€recently,€thatÏthe€great€religious€movements€and€their€prophets€were€born€atÏalmost€the€same€time€in€the€6th€century€BC:€Pythagoras€inÏItaly,€Thales€in€Greece,€Ezekiel€and€the€second€Isaiha€in€theÏLevant,€Zoroaster/ism€in€Persia,€Buddha€and€Mahavira,€theÏfounder€of€Jainism,€in€India,€and€Lao„tse€and€Confuscius/anismÏin€China.€€The€three€above€named€scholars€and€€othersÏsuggested€or€at€least€implied€that€this€simultaneity€wasÏprobably€no€accident.€McNeill€(1963:338)€suggested€"if€socialÏand€psychological€circumstances€of€the€submerged€people€andÏurban€lower€classes€were€in€fact€approximately€similar€in€allÏparts€of€Western€Asia,€we€should€expect€to€find€closeÏparallels€among€the€religious€movements€which€arose€andÏflourished€in€such€a€milieux.€This€is€in€fact€the€case."€€ÌÌIndeed,€Gills€and€Frank€considered€whether€these€similarÏ"social€and€psychological€circumstances"€may€not€also€haveÏreflected€similar€economic€circumstances€and€a€ò òat€least€justÏprevious€commonó ó€economic€crisis.€Moreover,€we€added,€theÏemergence€of€universalist€religions€may€also€be€an€indicationÏof€the€high€level€of€real€economic€inter„linkage€and€perhapsÏthe€attainment€of€a€new€level€or€stage€of€economicÏintegration,€which€characterized€this€period.€€ò òó óFor€it€is€alsoÏin€this€"axial"€period€that,€it€may€realistically€be€argued,ÏChina€first€became€permanently€incorporated€into€the€CentralÏWorld€System.€The€mid„€millennium€also€was€yet€another€periodÏof€the€half€millennial€recurring€waves€of€Asian€migrations,Ïthis€one€later€remarked€on€by€Herodotus.€ÌÌLess€researched€is€the€apparent€incorporation€also€ofÏSoutheast€Asia.€Bronze€may€have€been€in€use€there€already€inÏthe€early€2nd€millennium€BC.€However,€the€Southeast€AsiaÏscholar€George€Coedes€(1968:7),€following€van€SteinÏCallenfels,€dates€the€arrival€of€bronze€in€Indochina€aroundÏ600€BC€and€in€the€islands€around€300€BC.€That€dating€forÏbronze€may€also€be€very€late,€because€iron€finds€date€alreadyÏfrom€750€BC.€Archaeological€finds€also€establish€significantÏcontacts€and€trade€of€tin€and€gold€between€the€islands€and€theÏMalayan€Peninsula€and€mainland€from€the€middle€of€the€1stÏmillennium€BC€(Rhaman€1991).€Although€we€cited€references€toÏIndian€influence€in€Southeast€Asia€also€from€the€early€2ndÏmillennium€BC€already,€the€"recorded"€beginning€of€itsÏ"Indianization"€is€in€the€mid„1st€millennium€BC€€(Coedes€1968,ÏClover€1991).€Indian€texts€attest€to€"speculative€mercantileÏvoyages€for€commercial€profit,€financed€by€merchant€guilds€inÏmany€parts€of€India"€in€the€4th€century€BC€(Clover€1991).€AtÏthe€same€time,€according€to€Chinese€texts,€their€merchantsÏtravelled€and€carried€silk€over€the€"southwestern€route"€fromÏSzechuan,€through€Yunan,€across€Burma€into€India.€This€routeÏwas€also€prominent€again€in€the€1st€centuries€BC€and€AD.€ÏMoreover€there€was€"considerable€trade"€between€Chinese€andÏYehs€to€the€South€in€China€and€Indochina€before€the€end€of€the€3rd€century€BC.€Then€a€Ch'in€emperor€sent€five€armies€ofÏ500,000€men€against€the€Yeh€to€secure€economic€spoils€afterÏ221€BC,€after€which€merchants€from€both€sailed€at€least€as€farÏsouth€as€Annam.€The€next€expansion€of€the€"Nanhai"€trade€withÏSoutheast€Asia€and€with€India€came€during€the€Han€Dynasty€inÏthe€200/100€BC€„€200€AD€A€phase€(Wang€1958).€ÌÌThe€writings€of€Ptolemy€and€the€famous€òòPeriplus€of€theÏErythrean€Seaóó€attest€to€regular€maritime€trade€between€€theÏRoman€Empire€and€the€west€coast€of€India.€However,€trade€wasÏequally€or€more€intensive€also€onward€from€the€Coromandel€eastÏcoast€and€Ceylon€to€Southeast€Asia€and€China.€For€instanceÏPeter€Francis,€Jr.€(1989,1991)€has€done€research€on€ArikameduÏin€Eastern€India€and€its€bead€manufactures,€which€were€gearedÏto€export€both€westward€to€Rome€and€eastward€to€much€ofÏSoutheast€Asia.€Francis€(1991:40)€writes€that€"it€is€no€longerÏadequate€to€think€of€it€[Arikamedu]€as€an€'Indo„Roman€trading„¼station'€or€to€assess€its€value€only€in€terms€of€itsÏinteraction€with€the€Mediterranean€world.€The€data€from€otherÏsites€[in€Sri€Lanka,€Vietnam,€Thailand,€and€Malaysia€andÏpossibly€Indonesia]€show€that€Arikamedu€looked€east€far€moreÏthan€it€looked€west."€Chinese€Eastern€Han€DynastyÏdocumentation€also€attests€to€significant€trade€with€SoutheastÏAsia€in€the€2nd€century€AD,€and€there€is€also€evidence€of€theÏsame€from€the€2nd€century€BC.ÌÌMoreover,€ÌÌà0p..pàthe€great€expansion€of€Southeast€Asian,€and€particularlyÏIsland„Mainland€exchange€which€is€evident€in€laterÏprehistory€is,€I€believe,€closely€connected€with€thisÏIndo„Roman€commerce€and€can€be€explained€in€part,€atÏleast,€by€a€rising€demand....[Recent]€finds€have€beenÏmade€or€recognised€and€these€are€enough,€I€believe,€toÏpermit€us€to€argue€that€regular€exchange€links€betweenÏIndia€and€Southeast€Asia€commenced€earlier€than€WheelerÏor€Rashke€allowed....€By€the€early€Christian€era€theseÏtrade€routes€reached€out€to€bring€together€the€previouslyÏrather€separate€Southeast€Asian€exchange€systems,€linkingÏthem€into€a€vast€network€stretching€from€Western€Europe,Ïvia€the€à0È ..È àMediterranean€basin,€the€Persian€Gulf€and€theÏRed€Sea,€to€India,€Southeast€Asia€and€China...[in]Ïwhat€has€been€called€the€World€System€(CloverÏ1991:n.p.)ÌÌReturning€again€to€cycle€datings,€the€following€were€proposedÏby€Gills€and€Frank€(1992):ÌÌà0p..pàA€Phase:€1000€„€800€BCÌà0p..pàB€Phase:€€800€„€550€BCÌà0p..pàA€Phase:€€550€„€450€BCÌà0p..pàB€Phase:€€450€„€350à0Ð..ÐàBCÌà0p..pàA€Phase:€€350€„€250/200€BCÌà0p..pàB€Phase:€€250/200€€„€100/50€BCÌà0p..pàA€Phase:€€100/50€BC€„€150/200€ADÌÌTwo€problems€are€immediately€visible:€the€periods€are€ratherÏuneven€in€length,€and€the€datings€are€uncertain.€Two€additional€problems€showed€up€through€the€Bosworth€andÏWilkinson€city€census€"tests":€€The€long€B€phase€and€itsÏdating€from€800€to€550€BC€was€not€reflected€by€the€city€sizeÏcensus.€This€is€partly,€as€Bosworth€suggested,€because€theseÏand€also€later€datings€are€excessively€influenced€by€events€inÏWest€and€Central€Asia.€They€give€too€short€schrift€to€growthÏand€developments€farther€to€the€East€in€Asia,€which€may€haveÏbeen€equally€or€more€important.€Therefore,€it€may€be€wellÏbriefly€to€review€these€datings€again€here€without,€however,Ïyet€attempting€to€advance€very€far€beyond€them.ÌÌÌA€Phase€1000€„€800€BC€?ÌÌThe€Sherratts€(1991:375)€remark€that€"the€system€wasÏrevitalised€...€in€the€10th€century,"€particularly€along€theÏspice€route€from€Arabia€and€by€Levantine€centered€trade€withÏ"pan„Mediterranean€scope."€Kristiansen€(1992)€refers€toÏPhoenician€expansion€through€the€Atlantic€to€France€andÏBritain€in€the€9th€and€8th€centuries€BC.€€Gills€and€FrankÏ(1992)€had€similarly€underlined€the€Phoenician€expansionÏthrough€the€Mediterranean€during€this€period€and€noted€theÏrise€of€and€then€challenge€to€Assyrian€power€on€the€mainland.€ÏHowever€after€1000€BC,€metal€supplies€also€increased€again€inÏdistant€England€and€Scandinavia€(Kristiansen€1992:24).€ÏIndeed,€the€increase€was€of€such€enormous€proportions€in€theÏWest€in€its€final€phase€as€to€suggest€"overproduction"€and€theÏuse€of€Amorican€axes€as€currency€to€Kristiansen€(1992:5).ÏHowever,€"it€can€hardly€be€doubted€that€large€scale€metalÏconsumption€and€inflation€in€the€west€was€somehow€related€toÏthe€decrease€of€metal€production€in€the€East,"€where€itsÏconsumption€declined€drastically€during€the€next€Hallstatt€B2„¼3€period€and€never€recovered€(pp.€6,5).ÌÌWilkinson€finds€this€phase€"in€sync"€with€and€"not€challenged"Ïby€the€data.€Bosworth€also€agrees€and€finds€corroboration€forÏAssyria,€but€suggests€that€"perhaps€this€A€phase€might€beÏextended€as€Niniveh,€the€seat€of€Assyrian€power,€peaksÏsomewhere€between€800€„€650€BC,€when€it€reaches€120,000€peopleÏ„„€the€first€city€on€Chandler's€list€to€break€the€100,000Ïmark."€Indications€by€the€Sherratts€(1993)€could€also€extendÏthis€phase€into€the€8th€century.€There€were€continued€growthÏespecially€in€Assyria€and€new€developments€in€northernÏMediterranean€regions€in€the€Aegean,€Vilanova€Italy€and€Spain.ÏThe€number€of€major€cities€from€the€Mediterranean€to€IndiaÏremains€the€same€at€ten,€however,€and€increases€from€3€to€5€inÏChina.€€Melko€and€Wilkinson€(1992)€record€both€peace€[810„745ÏBC]€and€war€[859„810]€in€West€Asia€and€war€in€the€8th€and€7thÏcenturies€in€South€Asia.ÌÌEdens€(personal€correspondence)€also€finds€this€phaseÏ"extremely€heterogeneous€from€a€political€point€of€view"€andÏtends€rather€to€denigrate€this€period€as€an€A€phase.€HeÏobserves€that€Babylonia€continued€to€collapse,€but€we€need€notÏregard€that€as€necessarily€contrary€evidence.€The€AssyrianÏempire€only€flourishes€in€the€9th€century,€but€that€again€isÏnot€disconfirmatory.€Egypt€was€parochial€and€multiple€statesÏwere€in€competition€in€Syro„Palestine.€The€South€Arabian€Spice€trade€is€"overrated."€€Admittedly,€very€persuasive€evidence€isÏsparse,€even€if€there€seems€to€be€an€urban€revival€in€IndiaÏand€some€integration€occurred€in€China€under€the€Western€ChouÏDynasty€in€the€10th€century.€ÌÌB€Phase€800?€„€550€BC€?ÌÌIdentification€and€dating€in€this€phase€is€particularlyÏproblematic.€€Gills€and€Frank€(1992)€found€the€opening€andÏclosing€dates€ambiguous€and€difficult€to€define.€Edens€regardsÏit€as€"also€heterogeneous."€Chernykh's€coverage€of€Eurasia€isÏnot€so€revealing€for€this€period.€For€this€phase,€Gills€andÏFrank€(19